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Oil-in-water-in-oil (O1/W/O2) emulsions and nanoemulsions based on extra virgin olive oil were produced combining high-speed and ultrasonic homogenizer. Droplet size distribution, encapsulation efficiency, kinetic stability, and their structure were studied as a function of homogenization time, dispersed volume fraction, emulsifier type, and composition of the inner O1/W nanoemulsion. The ultrasonic-assisted homogenization was beneficial for the formation of O1/W/O2 nanoemulsion, as the intensity of the ultrasound did not destroy the double structure. The inner O1/W nanoemulsion with the lowest droplet size, surface tension, and viscosity resulted in double nanoemulsion with the minimum droplet size (432 ± 5 nm). Increasing the dispersed volume fraction resulted in higher particle size, gravitational separation, and high oiling off values. The DSC thermograms showed samples with the low droplet size presented also low encapsulation yield. The microscopic analysis demonstrated that all O1/W/O2 samples showed similar structures with distinctly visible phases and spherical aqueous droplets with a broad distribution.

Aim of this work was the development of integrated and complex encapsulating systems that will provide more efficient protection to the probiotic strain Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis (BB-12) in comparison to the conventional plain alginate beads. Within the scope of this study, the encapsulation of BB-12 through emulsification followed by external gelation was performed. For this purpose, a variety of alginate-based blends, composed of conventional and novel materials, were used. The results demonstrated that alginate beads incorporating 1% carrageenan or 2% nanocrystalline cellulose provided great protection to the viability of the probiotic bacteria during refrigerated storage (survival rates of 50.3% and 51.1%, respectively), as well as in vitro simulation of the gastrointestinal tract (survival rates of 38.7 and 42.0%, respectively). The incorporation of glycerol into the formulation of the beads improved the protective efficiency of the beads to the BB-12 cells during frozen storage, increasing significantly their viability compared to the plain alginate beads. Beads made of milk, alginate 1%, glucose 5%, and inulin 2% provided the best results in all cases. The microstructure of beads was assessed through SEM analysis and showed absence of free bacteria on the surface of the produced beads. Consequently, the encapsulation of BB-12 through emulsification in a complex encapsulating system was proved successful and effective.

Probiotic strains are claimed to confer health benefits to human organisms when consumed in adequate amounts. Thus, over the last decades there has been an increased interest in the production of functional foods containing probiotic bacteria. However, in order to display optimal probiotic functionality, these bacteria should survive through the gastrointestinal tract (GI) in high populations, reaching 106-107cfu (colony-forming unit)/g or mL at the end of product's shelf life. The food products that can be used as probiotic bacteria carriers exhibit limitations concerning the viability of the cells, associated with parameters such as the acidity of the food matrices or their processing and storage conditions. Moreover, the acid environment of the GI system may be crucial for their survival. Thus, techniques such as microencapsulation and enrichment with prebiotic substances are proposed for their protection. Aim of this review is to present the bacterial strains exhibiting probiotic properties, the microencapsulation techniques which are applied for their protection, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the characteristics of the most important food products that have been used as possible matrices for microencapsulated probiotic cells are described.

The aim of this work was the evaluation of the breadmaking potential of spelt flour when combined with wheat flour in various proportions, both in freshly baked and frozen form, and determine the optimal ratio for products with satisfactory quality characteristics. Freshly baked samples were prepared using different spelt–wheat flour mixtures ranging from 0 to 100% spelt at 10% intervals, while batches containing 0, 30, 50, 80, and 100% spelt were prepared in the case of frozen dough samples. The characteristics of the final baked products (dough volume expansion, specific volume, crust and crumb color, hardness, and water activity) were evaluated. Results showed that spelt flour proportions up to 20% provide bread with quality and sensory characteristics similar to wheat, while proportions higher than 70% lead to products with inferior properties. Therefore, samples with spelt content between 30 and 60%, although slightly degraded, remained highly acceptable.

Multiple O1/W/O2 nanoemulsions and O1/W nanoemulsions fortified with CLA or CoQ10 were produced using extra virgin olive or olive pomace oil and were also incorporated with polyphenols extracted from olive kernel to enhance their kinetic and chemical stability. They were prepared using a high-speed ultrasonic homogenizer. Specifically, nanoemulsions with 6 wt% lipid phase and 6 wt% non-ionic emulsifier (Tween 40) were produced and they demonstrated a droplet diameter >200 nm and high encapsulation stability during 30 days of storage at 4 °C or 25 °C. The incorporation of CLA or CoQ10 and polyphenolic compounds facilitated the homogenization of emulsions, reducing the droplet size and enhancing their chemical stability, and their bioactive retention values were >79%. O1/W/O2 nanoemulsions were produced using a mixture of non-ionic emulsifiers (Span 20 and Tween 40) and the O1/W enriched nanoemulsion as the dispersed phase. All multiple emulsions showed a bimodal droplet size distribution and Newtonian behavior while polyphenols facilitated their homogenization. Both vegetable oils resulted in samples with high kinetic and chemical stability; the bioactive retention values were found to be >80% at the end of 30 days of storage at 4 °C or 25 °C. Extra virgin olive oil resulted in more stable nanoemulsions in regards to kinetic and chemical stability at 4 °C, showing limited creaming and sedimentation boundary. Multiple nanoemulsions with the lowest initial droplet size presented the lowest droplet diameter growth and phase separation and the highest retention values. By comparing O1/W nanoemulsions and O1/W/O2 nanoemulsions, we noted that the reduction in the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity during storage was higher in the O1/W type. However, both delivery systems protected CLA and CoQ10 presenting high retention during storage. FTIR spectra before and after ultrasonic homogenization indicated that the sonication process did not significantly affect the lipid phase of O1/W/O2 nanoemulsions.

This study highlights the extraction of olive pomace oil enriched in sterols and squalene by using two methods: ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and conventional extraction by various solvent systems. UAE was performed to examine the effect of temperature and solid/liquid ratio on the extraction of these minor compounds using hexane and the optimal conditions were found:1.399 mg/g at 60 °C and 1/12 g/mL for β-sitosterol; 0.220 mg/g at 55 °C and 1/10 g/mL for campesterol; 0.105 mg/g at 50 °C and 1/12 g/mL for stigmasterol and 4.575 mg/g at 60 °C and 1/12 g/mL for squalene recovery. Conventional extraction by various alternative solvent systems (hexane, isopropanol and their mixtures) were used and their effect on the sterols and squalene extraction under Soxhlet (SE) conditions was also investigated. The hexane:isopropanol 3:2 (H:I 3:2) mixture achieved high sterols and squalene recovery (total sterols: 1.706 mg/g; squalene: 5.217 mg/g), which extracted also the highest oil (13.70%) and unsaponifiable matter (4.92%). Comparing the two methods, it was revealed that the application of UAE led to oils with higher sterols and squalene content than the ones obtained by SE using hexane as solvent and with almost similar content with that by SE using H:I 3:2.

Edible films and coatings, despite their practical applications, have only entered the food industry in the last decade. Their main functions are to protect the food products from mechanical damage and from physical, chemical and microbiological deteriorative changes. The ingredients used for their formation are polysaccharides, proteins and lipids, in individual or combined formulations. The edible films and coatings have already been applied on various food products, such as fruits, vegetables, meat products, seafood products, cheese, baked products and deep fat fried products. The techniques for their application on foods are of particular interest. Nowadays, composite edible films and coatings are also being studied, based on combinations of the properties of individual components. In addition to conventional materials, new ones, such as nanomaterials, are being investigated, aiming to enhance the resulting properties. However, before the incorporation of new materials to films and coatings, they must be thoroughly checked according to the legislation, to assure their lawful use. This review covers the recent developments on the edible films and coatings area in terms of the contribution of novel constituting materials to the improvement of their properties.

Phytosterols are integral natural components of plant cell membranes and are abundant in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and grains. Phytosterols have multiple beneficial effects on human health, such as hypocholesterolemic, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities. Evidence show that these bioactives play an essential role in the reduction of blood cholesterol, thus providing protection from the cardiovascular morbidity. β-Sitosterol is a significant member of the phytosterol group, which is found in cereals, vegetables, and fruits in concentrations of 0.24–0.61, 0.02–0.41, and 0.02–0.34 g kg− 1, respectively. Vegetable oils are rich sources of β-sitosterol containing 0.24–8.79 g kg− 1 (representing 33%–91% of total phytosterols); specifically, olive oil and olive pomace oil have a high β-sitosterol concentration ranging between 0.91 and 1.52 g kg− 1 (representing 75%–90% of total phytosterols). Due to the functional role of phytosterols, especially of β-sitosterol, the conditions of use of their health claims are set out in the Commission Regulation (EU) No 686/2014. This chapter aims to discuss the chemical structure and properties, the role, and the functionality of β-sitosterol. The main sources of β-sitosterol focusing on vegetable oils, mainly olive oil and olive pomace oil, are also presented. The fate of phytosterols and especially of β-sitosterol during food processing such as oil refining and other processes (i.e., frying) is also discussed. Finally, the enrichment of various food systems with β-sitosterol including commercial fats, butter, and nanoemulsions are reviewed offering an updated glimpse of valuable applications of this functional component.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) presents multiple health benefits as an essential molecule for every cell and as an excellent antioxidant compound; however, its oral intake is challenging due to its low water solubility. Oil-in-water (o/w) nanoemulsions are considered excellent delivery systems for CoQ10, offering high protection and controlled release of the bioactive compound. In the present study, CoQ10 nanoemulsions were prepared using extra virgin olive (EVOO) or olive-pomace oil (OPO) with Tween 20 and Tween 40. It was investigated the effect of environment (25 °C) and refrigerated (4 °C) storage on the nanoemulsion physical and chemical stability. The results showed that it is possible to form fine o/w nanoemulsions with the two oils and various emulsifiers’ concentrations. The physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsions were evaluated in terms of mean droplet diameter (MDD), polydispersity index (PDI), ζ-potential, turbidity, and CoQ10 physicochemical stability (RCoQ10%). EVOO proved able to form kinetically more stable nanoemulsions with high CoQ10 retention (74.01%), while OPO led to nanosized emulsions with lower CoQ10 retention (71.99%). It was also observed that CoQ10 retention increases as the oil concentration increases (6% w/w EVOO, RCoQ10 = 77.17 and 8% w/w EVOO, RCoQ10 = 79.89%). All the nanoemulsion formulations, after storage either at 4 °C or at 25 °C, remained in the nanosized range after 3 months, with high physical (MDD

Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) [choline chloride with citric acid (DES-CA), lactic acid (DES-LA), maltose (DES-MA) and glycerol (DES-GLY) and an addition of 20% v/v water in the NADES solutions] combined with homogenate – (HAE), microwave – (MAE), ultrasound – (UAE) or high hydrostatic pressure – (HHPAE) assisted extractions were first successfully applied to phenolic compounds recovery from olive pomace. DES-CA and DES-LA showed the best extraction efficiency in terms of the total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of the extracts obtained by HAE and UAE and by MAE and HHPAE, respectively. HAE proved to be the best method with extraction efficiency superior to MAE, UAE and HHPAE. HPLC analysis revealed that almost all NADESs obtained extracts were more enriched in phenolic compounds than those with conventional solvents. The results confirmed that the proposed combined methods could provide an excellent alternative for sustainable and green extraction of phenolic compounds from plant sources leading to novel industrial applications.

In the present work, fat reduction of Greek strained yoghurt ice cream (YIC) was carried out in three proportional milkfat levels i.e. 30, 50 and 70% using three types of oligosaccharides namely long-chain inulin, oligofructose and maltodextrin 12 DE. Greek strained yoghurt was blended with ice cream mixes in ratios of 1:3 and 1:1. The physico-chemical, textural and thermal characteristics of the YIC mixes and their obtained frozen end products were determined. The sensory modalities (olfactory, gustatory, tactile and oro-tactile) of the YIC were monitored following 2 and 16 weeks of quiescent frozen storage at −25 °C. Milkfat reduction impaired significantly (p

The potential for sugarcane, grape or raisin molasses as a partial sucrose substitute in chocolate ice cream was studied. Sucrose substitution by molasses reinforced the macroviscosity and increased consistency coefficient. The air incorporating capacity was enhanced resulting in narrower air cell size distributions. The textural and thermophysical profile, as well as the melting behaviour of the sugarcane molasses ice creams, was similar to that of the sucrose based analogues. Sucrose replacement by raisin or grape molasses was accompanied by a significant improvement of melting resistance, but induced a significant increase in the instrumentally and sensory assessed hardness. According to quantitative descriptive analysis findings, sugarcane ice creams exhibited the highest coarseness, wateriness, iciness, astringency and sourness sensation stimuli, the grape-based ice creams exerted the best chocolate colour and mouth-coating ability whilst the raisin molasses analogues were perceived as highly creamy, sweet, gummy and well balanced in terms of chocolate flavour.

Spelt flour has become increasingly popular due to its superior nutritional properties. Aim of this work was to conduct a comparative evaluation of the chemical composition of wheat and spelt flour, their dough rheology and breadmaking properties. Flours’ comparison included the determination of their moisture, ash, protein, gluten, gliadin, glutenin, starch and total carbohydrates content. Their rheological properties were also analyzed through farinograph and extensiograph. The protein fractions of the two flours were evaluated by electrophoresis. Finally, each flour was separately used for breadmaking and the characteristics of the resulting bakery products (specific volume, dough swelling, crust and crumb color, hardness and water activity), were evaluated. Although spelt flour has higher protein content, it contains less gluten, while wheat flour provides a stronger and more elastic dough with superior breadmaking properties. Bread from spelt flour exhibits lower specific volume, darker crumb and crust color and increased crust and crumb hardness.

The primary aim of the present research was the development and testing of novel synthesized crosslinked beads consisting of plain chitosan and/or with β-cyclodextrin as hexavalent chromium adsorption agents. Their effectiveness was evaluated in batch experiments, whereby the effects of pH, initial hexavalent chromium concentration, initial adsorbent concentration, and temperature were investigated. Between the two beads, chitosan/β-cyclodextrin provided higher hexavalent chromium removal efficiency than the chitosan beads. Further, it achieved higher amount of adsorbed hexavalent chromium in the majority of the experiments. The adsorption was exothermic and more spontaneous at low temperature (15 °C). The optimum hexavalent chromium removal conditions were identified at pH = 4, initial concentration of adsorbent 20 g/L, and temperature of 15 °C; at high initial concentrations of hexavalent chromium (75 and 100 mg/L) a decrease in the removal efficiency was observed. The maximum reported adsorption capacity was 400.00 and 555.56 mgCr(VI)/gadsorbent for plain chitosan and chitosan with β-cyclodextrin beads produced by crosslinking, respectively. Moreover, the adsorption of hexavalent chromium onto both beads was revealed to follow the kinetic model of pseudo-second. Both the adsorption and the characterization of the beads were evaluated prior and after the adsorption process by FTIR and SEM analyses. Finally, the synthesized beads provided satisfactory regeneration results after four adsorption/desorption cycles. Therefore, they constitute a promising novel class of adsorbents for the efficient decontamination of aqueous streams with concentrations of hexavalent chromium that exceed legislation limits.

The odour, flavour, taste, sensory and volatile components profile of yoghurt, derived from milk homogenised by ultrasound or pressure were compared. The ultrasonication of milk led to yoghurts with lower degree of likeness (DOL) and off-flavours compared with those of yoghurts from pressure treated milk; also, burned, pungent and fatty flavour characteristics were more intense. The volatile components were identified by solid phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SPME–GC–MS). Both homogenisation treatments lead to chromatograms with similar peak areas of 2,3-butadione, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, delta-decalactone, while the chromatogram peak areas of acetone, 2-butanone, 2-heptanone, bicyclo[2,2,1]-heptan-2-one, 2-nonanone, 2-undecanone, butanoic acid, hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, n-decanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, acetaldehyde, hexanal, 1-buten-3-yne, heptane and dimethylsulphide were higher for the ultrasonicated samples. Sensory characteristics and GC–MS profiles were correlated with DOL and two models created with PLS regression. Both models included the appropriate variables and showed adequate ability to describe DOL by sensory characteristics or volatile components.

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of emulsion composition (with regards to aqueous phase ratio and incorporated antioxidant compounds) on the formulation and stability of water in extra virgin olive oil nano-emulsions. Two aqueous phase ratios (2% w/w and 3% w/w) and three olive oil endogenous phenolic compounds (vanillic, caffeic and syringic acid), incorporated in the aqueous phase, were tested in order to evaluate their effect on emulsion properties and colloidal and oxidation stability. Additionally, nonlinear regression method was employed to generate a model, as well as to predict and test hypotheses of the emulsions mean droplet diameter effect on their oxidation index. The experimental results proved that the aqueous phase ratio plays a crucial role in nano-emulsion formulation, with increasing ratio leading to degradation of all the examined emulsion properties. Moreover, the addition of the olive oil endogenous phenolic compounds in the aqueous phase resulted in improved kinetic and oxidation stability of the water-in-oil (w/o) nano-emulsions. From the tested phenolic compounds, caffeic acid appeared to be the most effective. In fact, the nano-emulsion with 2% w/w aqueous phase with incorporated caffeic acid showed the highest emulsion stability (92%), oxidation stability (33.6 h) and the lowest mean droplet diameter (251 nm), polydispersity (0.32) and turbidity (172 NTU).

The optimum conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction of olive pomace oil were determined by response surface methodology (RSM). The effect of temperature, solid/liquid ratio and particle size was investigated on oil yield, its unsaponifiable matter (USM%), total phenol content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (DPPH). The optimal condition for the oil yield was: temperature, 60 °C, solid/liquid ratio, 1/12 g/mL and particle size, 0.5 mm. At this condition, the oil recovery was 11.03% which well matches with the predicted value. The optimal point for the USM% was achieved when the UAE is carried out at 55 °C using solid/liquid ratio 1/12 g/mL and particle size 0.5 mm. The optimal conditions for TPC of olive pomace oil obtained and its antioxidant activity were as follows: temperature, 50 °C, solid/liquid ratio, 1/8 g/mL and particle size, 0.9 mm and temperature, 55 °C, solid/liquid ratio, 1/8 g/mL and particle size, 0.9 mm, respectively. Close agreement between experimental and predicted values for USM%, TPC and DPPH was found.

The present study was designed to produce novel cross-linked Chitosan and Chitosan/β-Cyclodextrin beads and study the adsorption of Indigo Carmine. Both adsorbents were characterized by SEM and FTIR techniques. Batch experiments were conducted in order to evaluate the effect of initial adsorbent's concentration, dye's initial concentration, initial pH and temperature. In all cases Chitosan/β-Cyclodextrin crosslinked beads exhibited higher removal efficiency of Indigo Carmine. Higher removal rates of Indigo Carmine were observed at low values of dye's initial concentration, pH and temperature, and high concentrations of adsorbent. The equilibrium adsorption data were a good fit for both Langmuir and Freundlich models and maximum adsorption capacity was 500.0 and 1000.0 mgIC/gadsorbent for Chitosan and Chitosan/β-Cyclodextrin crosslinked beads, respectively. Adsorption of Indigo Carmine was found to follow the pseudo-second order. The negative values of ΔGo, ΔHo and ΔSo indicate that the adsorption process is exothermic, spontaneous and favorable at low temperatures.

Olive pomace, the solid by-product derived from olive oil production consists of a high concentration of bioactive compounds with antioxidant activity, such as phenolic compounds, and their recovery by applying innovative techniques is a great opportunity and challenge for the olive oil industry. This study aimed to point out a new approach for the integrated valorization of olive pomace by extracting the phenolic compounds and protecting them by encapsulation or incorporation in nanoemulsions. Innovative assisted extraction methods were evaluated such as microwave (MAE), homogenization (HAE), ultrasound (UAE), and high hydrostatic pressure (HHPAE) using various solvent systems including ethanol, methanol, and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs). The best extraction efficiency of phenolic compounds was achieved by using NADES as extraction solvent and in particular the mixture choline chloride-caffeic acid (CCA) and choline chloride-lactic acid (CLA), by HAE at 60 °C/12,000 rpm and UAE at 60 °C, the total phenolic content (TPC) of extracts was 34.08 mg gallic acid (GA)/g dw and 20.14 mg GA/g dw for CCA, and by MAE at 60 °C and HHPAE at 600 MPa/10 min, the TPC was 29.57 mg GA/g dw and 25.96 mg GA/g dw for CLA. HAE proved to be the best method for the extraction of phenolic compounds from olive pomace. Microencapsulation and nanoemulsion formulations were also reviewed for the protection of the phenolic compounds extracted from olive pomace. Both encapsulation techniques exhibited satisfactory results in terms of encapsulation stability. Thus, they can be proposed as an excellent technique to incorporate phenolic compounds into food products in order to enhance both their antioxidative stability and nutritional value.

In this work, fennel oleoresin (FO) was encapsulated through freeze drying of the so produced emulsions within different edible biopolymeric carriers. Specifically, modified starch, maltodextrin, chitosan, and gum arabic were used as carriers both individually and in blends (binary and ternary ones). The freeze-dried FO products were characterized in terms of structure (X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis), whereas their stability was studied by means of sorption isotherm analysis under various a w. Moreover, the formation of complexes was evaluated through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) technique and ζ-potential analysis. The verification of the encapsulation process was also conducted by applying FTIR technique. Results showed that the final products presented an amorphous character, whereas the sorption isotherms could be described adequately by the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model. FTIR technique proved to be effective to confirm both the formation of complexes and the presence of FO into the studied carriers, verifying thus the success of the process.

The feasibility of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction (MAEE) for the polyphenols recovery from olive kernel and leaves was examined. The study revealed that applying MAE at 60 °C for 30 min, the extracts obtained from olive kernel had phenolic content 10.61 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 10.40 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw) and the extracts obtained from olive leaves had phenolic content 28.00 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 23.40 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw), respectively. By applying MAEE at 60 °C for 30 min, the extracts obtained from olive kernel had phenolic content 10.37 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 15.93 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw) and the extracts obtained from olive leaves had phenolic content 29.52 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 26.20 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw), respectively. Similarly, applying conventional extraction at 60 °C for 1 h, extracts with phenolic content 11.41 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 9.69 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw) were obtained from olive kernel and extracts with 34.53 mg GAE/g raw material (dw) and antioxidant activity 27.94 mg Trolox/g raw material (dw) were obtained from olive leaves, respectively. HPLC analyses of phenolic compounds of extracts proved that the use of enzyme on extraction process leaded to valuable recovery of phenolic compounds. The predominant phenolic compounds in olive kernel and leaves extracts were oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol and rutin. Moreover, in order to protect the phenolic compounds’ properties, the extracts of olive kernel and leaves with high antioxidant activity were encapsulated in maltodextrin by freeze-drying technique. The final encapsulated polyphenolics’ products were evaluated in terms of hygroscopicity, solubility, moisture content and microencapsulation efficiency (MEE%). The MEE% varied from 82.39 to 92.12 % and from 87.98 to 91.06 % for olive kernel and leaves formulations, respectively. The encapsulation improved the moisture content, solubility and hygroscopicity of the encapsulated products. Concluding, the MAEE method being environment-friendly was efficient for the polyphenols recovery, while the polyphenols having significant antioxidant activity can be used as a source of potential antioxidant. Importantly, the use of olive kernel and leaves for such polyphenolic products reduces the impact of olive oil production on the environment.

In the present work, the preparation of olive oil w/o nanoemulsions was studied using non-ionic surfactants (Tween 20, Span 20) without the addition of a co-surfactant. Different olive oil endogenous compounds with an amphiphilic character (gallic acid, apigenin, quercetin, and trans-cinnamic acid) were dispersed into the aqueous phase, and their impact on the nanoemulsions stability and properties ability was determined. The stable nanoemulsions were presented in pseudo-ternary phase diagrams (oil–aqueous phase–surfactant) for each surfactant and endogenous compound. The nanoemulsions properties were evaluated in relationship to compositional components. The results of this study concluded that stable w/o olive oil nanoemulsions without use of a co-surfactant were obtained and moreover, the most efficient type of emulsifier and its ratio of addition in the system were determined. The incorporation of olive oil endogenous compounds resulted into more stable emulsions. In particular, gallic acid was proven to be the most efficient compound since it enhanced the emulsion properties prolonging simultaneously the emulsions’ stability.

High δ-manganese dioxide’s initial concentration (800 mg/L), temperature (50 °C) and acidic pH (3.0–3.5) were found to be the optimum conditions for the removal of acetaminophen. Additionally, acetaminophen was found to be removed more rapidly at high initial concentrations (70−100 mg/L). The kinetic analysis of the experiments revealed that the two tested kinetic models, the one assuming the electron transfer and the other assuming the complex formation as the rate-limiting step, provided a good fit. The positive value of activation energy estimated by the Arrhenius equation indicated that the reaction is endothermic. The transformation products analysis by means of RPLC-QToF, revealed the formation of acetaminophen’s dimer and trimer in the early stages of the reaction, followed by their complete removal in the latter stages of the reaction. Furthermore, four new compounds were detected. Three isomeric compounds fit the formulas C14H11NO4, attributed to aggregates of 1,4-benzoquinone and N-Acetyl-p-benzoquinone Imine, and one additional transformation product was attributed to C17H8N3O5. The abundance of the isomeric compounds was increasing after 60 min of the reaction, and decreasing during the last stages of the reaction, while the latter’s abundance was increasing during the reaction process.

Due to the shift towards healthy lifestyles, the food industry focuses on expanding the production of probiotic food products. Τhe incorporation of probiotic bacteria into the food matrix is challenging because various processes can damage cells’ viability. In this study, an innovative and advanced encapsulation approach combining the extrusion technique with the technique of double emulsification (W1/O/W2 emulsion system) is proposed for the protection of Bifidobacterium lactis (BB-12). Different W1/O/W2 emulsion formulations were investigated using various encapsulating agents as wall materials for satisfactory encapsulation of BB-12 cells. The probiotic cells were incorporated in the double emulsion prior to extrusion and their viability was evaluated by exposing them to different storage temperatures and various pH values, as well as to simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The results demonstrated that the viability of probiotics, when using the proposed encapsulation system, maintained above 6 log cfu g−1 during storage at 4 °C and −18 °C for 4 weeks, while the BB-12 cells encapsulated through conventional extrusion were decreased significantly (survival rate 46.8%) after 15 days of storage. Moreover, this novel system provides high survival rates during the in vitro simulation of the gastrointestinal system (up to 86.1%) and at various pH environments (up to 98.5%).

Ultrasound (US) application on milk fat homogenization was compared to conventional treatment by pressure in terms of milk fat globule (MFG) size, fermentation process kinetics, and viscosity of set type yogurt. Homogenization of milk by (i) US (frequency 20 kHz, amplitude 150–750 W) and (ii) two-stage pressure (10–30 MPa/5 MPa) was examined.

UNLABELLED In this work, the oxidative and thermal stabilities of 4 different encapsulating agents (chitosan [CH], modified starch [MS], gum arabic [GA], and maltodextrin [MD]) used in fennel oleoresin microencapsulation by the freeze-drying technique were evaluated both individually and in blends (binary and ternary ones). The oxidative stability of the encapsulated products was assessed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the secondary oxidation volatiles along with the use of oxidation markers (peroxide value, PV), while a differential scanning calorimetery analysis was conducted. Gum arabic, both plain and its mixtures, exhibited the lowest protection against lipid oxidation, presenting high PVs. However, good microencapsulation efficiency along with the best oxidative stability in terms of PV and thermal stability indicated that the formulations of MS-CH and MS-MD-CH could be suggested as alternative encapsulating agents. PRACTICAL APPLICATION Herbal oleoresins including fennel can provide various nutritional benefits; however, they are sensitive to oxidation and should be microencapsulated. Therefore, there is a need for encapsulating agents that provide good microencapsulation efficiency and enhance at the same time oxidative and thermal stability.

Heat reflux (CONV), Soxhlet (SOX), microwave-assisted (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted (UAE) extraction methods, using ethanol, water and their mixtures, were studied for the recovery of bioactive compounds from Tribulus terrestris, Panax ginseng, Gingko biloba, Lepidium meyenii, Turnera diffusa and Withania somnifera. The study revealed that SOX method achieved extracts with the highest yieldTPC in terms of the total phenolic content (TPC) (66.65 ± 1.50%); MAE and UAE resulted also in extracts with high TPC and shorter treatment times compared to SOX. More specifically, the TPC values for MAE and UAE were 91.783 ± 0.026 mg GA/g dw and 81.113 ± 0.103 mg GA/g dw, respectively, the antioxidant activity (DPPH) was 63.577 ± 0.057 mg Trolox/g dw and 64.923 mg Trolox/g dw, and the yieldTPC was 60.82% and 61.89%, respectively. All were higher compared to those obtained by the CONV method. The use of pure ethanol as the extraction solvent, provided maximum TPC and similar results for DPPH and yieldTPC (%). Moreover, maximum TPC (183.70 mg GA/g dw) and DPPH (377.21 mg Trolox/g dw) values were achieved for T. diffusa. The HPLC analysis of T. terrestris, P. ginseng and G. biloba extracts showed that G. biloba contained its characteristic bioactive compound in the highest concentration (13.512 mg gingkolide/g herb).

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) although gains recognition as food supplement due to various physiological activities, its water insolubility and oxidative instability limit its applications in food systems. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions based on extra virgin olive (EVOO) or pomace oil (OPO) are considered excellent delivery systems offering high protection and controlled release of CLA. In the present study, CLA-loaded nanoemulsions were prepared using ultrasonic homogenization approach and the effect of storage temperature (25 °C or 4 °C) on the nanoemulsion physical and chemical stability was investigated. All formulations demonstrated good long-term physical and chemical stability; mean droplet diameter