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The presacral vertebrae have various secondary centers of ossification, whose timing of fusion can be used for age estimation of human skeletal remains up to the middle to the latter third decade. However, detailed information about the age at which these secondary centers of ossification fuse has been lacking. In this study, the timing of epiphyseal union in presacral vertebrae was studied in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons (57 females and 47 males) between the ages of 9 and 30, taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. A detailed photographic record of these epiphyses and the age ranges for the different stages of epiphyseal union are provided. Partial union of epiphyses was observed from 11 to 27 years of age. In general, centers of ossification begin to fuse first in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, followed by centers of ossification in the thoracic region. The first center of ossification to complete fusion is usually that of the mammillary process in lumbar vertebrae. This is usually followed by that of the transverse process, spinous transverse process, and annular ring, regardless of vertebra type. There were no statistically significant sex differences in timing of fusion, but there was a trend toward early maturation in females for some vertebra or epiphyses. Bilateral epiphyses did not show statistically significant differences in timing of fusion. This study offers information on timing of fusion of diverse epiphyseal locations useful for age estimation of complete or fragmented human skeletal remains., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Sexual dimorphism is important for intraspecific variation and well studied in the human skeleton. In the thoracic part of the spine sexual dimorphism is expected for differences in the respiratory system related to body mass, lung capacity, and energetics, and in the reproductive system for adaptations to pregnancy (lower spine lordosis, posture). However, little is known about sexual dimorphism in this anatomical region. We use three-dimensional (3D)-geometric morphometrics to test hypotheses on sexual dimorphism in the first 10 thoracic vertebrae (T1–T10). Forty-six 3D-landmarks were measured on vertebrae of 24 adult females and males of known age and sex. Results confirm that male vertebrae are consistently larger than female ones. Males show more dorsally oriented transverse processes and relatively larger vertebral bodies in upper and lower thoracic vertebrae. Sexual dimorphism in lower thoracic vertebrae affects the orientation of the spinous processes, which is more horizontal in females but more caudal in males. Such regional pattering of sexual dimorphism emerges also from principal component analyses reflecting a complex interaction between the effects of sex and serial position on shape variation. Greater dorsal orientation of male transverse processes reorients the ribs and could lead to greater radial thorax diameters. This fits with greater male respiratory capacities, but may indicate also greater invagination of the male spine within the thorax. Horizontal orientation of the spinous processes in females could allow for a greater thoraco-lumbar lordosis during pregnancy, but more comparative research is necessary to test these hypotheses., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), The Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

El presente artículo trata de exponer la fundamental tesis de Ortega “Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia, y si no la salvo a ella no me salvo yo”, mostrando sus distintas modulaciones a lo largo de su obra y su muchas veces desconocida evolución. De este modo, se hará patente la riqueza de la potente propuesta metafísica orteguiana, al tiempo que se gana claridad sobre la evolución biográfica de una de las figuras políticas españolas clave del siglo pasado., Depto. de Salud Pública y Materno - Infantil, Fac. de Medicina, TRUE, pub

En este artículo se aborda el problema de los orígenes evolutivos de la religión, confrontando las dos teorías biológicas más asentadas –que entienden la religión como subproducto y como adaptación, respectivamente–, con las propuestas de Ortega al respecto. Se muestra cómo la filosofía de la razón vital orteguiana constituye un marco muy provechoso para comprender sistemáticamente los datos y descubrimientos proporcionados por las nuevas ciencias biológicas., Depto. de Salud Pública y Materno - Infantil, Fac. de Medicina, TRUE, pub

This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity (no. CGL 2015-63648-P) to M.B. D.G.-M. was funded by IdEx University of Bordeaux Investments for the Future programme (no. ANR-10-IDEX-03-02) and the European Commission’s Research Infrastructure Action via the Synthesys Projects (nos. SE-TAF-6406, DE-TAF-6404, BE-TAF-5639). Financial support for M.H. was provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation (no. 31003A_176319/1) and the Mäxi Foundation. A.G.-O. received support from the Spanish FEDER/Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación-AEI (project no. PGC2018-093925-B-C33) and Research Group (no. IT1418-19) from Eusko Jaurlaritza-Gobierno Vasco. A.G.-O. is funded by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (no. RYC-2017-22558)., The tall and narrow body shape of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved via changes in the thorax, pelvis and limbs. It is debated, however, whether these modifications first evolved together in African Homo erectus, or whether H. erectus had a more primitive body shape that was distinct from both the more ape-like Australopithecus species and H. sapiens. Here we present the first quantitative three-dimensional reconstruction of the thorax of the juvenile H. erectus skeleton, KNM-WT 15000, from Nariokotome, Kenya, along with its estimated adult rib cage, for comparison with H. sapiens and the Kebara 2 Neanderthal. Our three-dimensional reconstruction demonstrates a short, mediolaterally wide and anteroposteriorly deep thorax in KNM-WT 15000 that differs considerably from the much shallower thorax of H. sapiens, pointing to a recent evolutionary origin of fully modern human body shape. The large respiratory capacity of KNM-WT 15000 is compatible with the relatively stocky, more primitive, body shape of H. erectus., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Funding was provided by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain, projects CGL2012-36682 and CGL2012-37279. Convenio Principado de Asturias-Universidad de Oviedo CN09-084. The funders had no role in study design, data, We present here the first cases in Neandertals of congenital clefts of the arch of the atlas. Two atlases from El Sidrón, northern Spain, present respectively a defect of the posterior (frequency in extant modern human populations ranging from 0.73% to 3.84%), and anterior (frequency in extant modern human populations ranging from 0.087% to 0.1%) arch, a condition in most cases not associated with any clinical manifestation. The fact that two out of three observable atlases present a low frequency congenital condition, together with previously reported evidence of retained deciduous mandibular canine in two out of ten dentitions from El Sidrón, supports the previous observation based on genetic evidence that these Neandertals constituted a group with close genetic relations. Some have proposed for humans and other species that the presence of skeletal congenital conditions, although without clinical significance, could be used as a signal of endogamy or inbreeding. In the present case this interpretation would fit the general scenario of high incidence of rare conditions among Pleistocene humans and the specific scenariothat emerges from Neandertal paleogenetics, which points to long-term small and decreasing population size with reduced and isolated groups. Adverse environmental factors affecting early pregnancies would constitute an alternative, non-exclusive, explanation for a high incidence of congenital conditions. Further support or rejection of these interpretations will come from new genetic and skeletal evidence from Neandertal remains., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

The size and shape of the Neandertal thorax has been debated since the first discovery of Neandertal ribs more than 150 years ago, with workers proposing different interpretations ranging from a Neandertal thoracic morphology that is indistinguishable from modern humans, to one that was significantly different from them. Here, we provide a virtual 3D reconstruction of the thorax of the adult male Kebara 2 Neandertal. Our analyses reveal that the Kebara 2 thorax is significantly different but not larger from that of modern humans, wider in its lower segment, which parallels his wide bi-iliac breadth, and with a more invaginated vertebral column. Kinematic analyses show that rib cages that are wider in their lower segment produce greater overall size increments (respiratory capacity) during inspiration. We hypothesize that Neandertals may have had a subtle, but somewhat different breathing mechanism compared to modern humans., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Background: The Ministry of Health in Mali included the treatment of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) into the package of activities of the integrated community case management (iCCM). This paper evaluates the most effective model of supervision for treating SAM using community health workers (CHWs). Methods: This study was a prospective non-randomized community intervention trial with two intervention groups and one control group with different levels of supervision. It was conducted in three districts in rural areas of the Kayes Region. In the high supervision group, CHWs received supportive supervision for the iCCM package and nutrition-specific supervision. In the light supervision group, CHWs received supportive supervision based on the iCCM package. The control group had no specific supervision. Results: A total of 6112 children aged 6–59 months with SAM without medical complications were included in the study. The proportion of cured children was 81.4% in those treated by CHWs in the high supervision group, 86.2% in the light supervision group, and 66.9% in the control group. Children treated by the CHWs who received some supervision had better outcomes than those treated by unsupervised CHWs (p < 0.001). There was no difference between areas with light and high supervision, although those with high supervision performed better in most of the tasks analyzed. Conclusions: Public policies in low-income countries should be adapted, and their model of supervision of CHWs for SAM treatment in the community should be evaluated., The Innocent Foundation, European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations Commission, Post Code Lottery Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

A pesar de su importancia estratégica en el límite más alejado de la expansión neolítica en Europa, los datos arqueogenéticos de restos humanos del Mesolítico y Neolítico de Portugal son todavía muy limitados. Aquí presentamos evidencia antigua de ADNmt (en su mayoría inédita) para llenar el vacío y discutir el patrón de “resurgimiento genético” de la ascendencia cazadora-recolectora (Mesolítico), ampliamente reportado en otras partes de Europa, entre los primeros constructores de megalitos (Neolítico Medio) de la Península Ibérica occidental. . Un total de 11 necrópolis mesolíticas y neolíticas ubicadas en las regiones central y sur de Portugal datan de ca. Se estudiaron los años 6200-3000 a.C. Estos sitios comprenden todas las etapas culturales del Mesolítico-Neolítico e incluyen varias arquitecturas y espacios funerarios. Se obtuvieron haplotipos reproducibles de ADNmt HVRI de 23 individuos de seis sitios arqueológicos diferentes repartidos en un transecto de >3000 años, desde el Mesolítico Tardío hasta el Neolítico Tardío. Nuestros resultados respaldan un modelo demográfico y poblacional explicativo de tres etapas: i) las poblaciones locales de cazadores-recolectores constituían un acervo genético altamente homogéneo; ii) las primeras prácticas agrícolas fueron introducidas por grupos humanos que portaban haplogrupos nuevos y extraños y exhibían la firma de eventos de mezcla que ocurrían en el momento del primer contacto con los cazadores-recolectores locales; iii) el patrón genético detectado entre las poblaciones constructoras de megalitos, que muestra ascendencia cazadora-recolectora junto con ascendencia agrícola, puede explicarse por los principios segmentarios y las prácticas endogámicas concomitantes que estructuraron las sociedades neolíticas., Despite its strategic importance at the furthermost edge of the Neolithic expansion in Europe, archaeogenetic data from Mesolithic and Neolithic human remains from Portugal are still very limited. Here we present ancient mtDNA evidence (mostly unpublished) to fill the gap and discuss the pattern of “genetic resurgence” of hunter-gatherer (Mesolithic) ancestry, widely reported elsewhere in Europe, among the first megalith builders (Middle Neolithic) of western Iberia. A total of 11 Mesolithic and Neolithic necropolises located in the central and southern regions of Portugal dated to ca. 6200–3000 BC were studied. These sites comprise all Mesolithic–Neolithic cultural stages and include several funerary architectures and spaces. Reproducible mtDNA HVRI haplotypes were obtained from 23 individuals from six different archaeological sites spread across a >3000-year transect, from the Late Mesolithic to the Late Neolithic. Our results support a three-stage explanatory demographic and populational model: i) local hunter-gatherer populations constituted a highly homogeneous genetic pool; ii) the first farming practices were introduced by human groups carrying new, extraneous haplogroups and exhibiting the signature of admixture events occurring at the time of first contact with local hunter-gatherers; iii) the genetic pattern detected among the megalith-building populations, showing hunter-gatherer along with farming ancestry, may be explained by the segmentary principles, and attendant endogamic practices, that structured Neolithic societies., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Depto. de Medicina Legal, Psiquiatría y Patología, Fac. de Medicina, TRUE, pub

Human beings growing‐up in adverse biocultural environments, including undernutrition, exposure to infection, economic oppression/poverty, heavy workloads, high altitude, war, racism, and religious/ethnic oppression, may be stunted, have asymmetric body proportions, be wasted, be overweight, and be at greater risk for disease. One group of researchers explains this as a consequence of “developmental programming” (DP). Another group uses the phrase “predictive adaptive response” (PAR). The DP group tends to view the alterations as having permanent maladaptive effects that place people at risk for disease. The PAR group considers the alterations at two levels of adaptation: (1) “short‐term adaptive responses for immediate survival” and (2) “predictive responses required to ensure postnatal survival to reproductive age.” The differences between the DP and PAR hypotheses are evaluated in this article. A life history theory analysis rephrases the DP versus PAR debate from disease or adaptation to the concept of “trade‐offs.” Even under good conditions, the stages of human life history are replete with trade‐offs for survival, productivity, and reproduction. Under adverse conditions, trade‐offs result in reduced survival, poor growth, constraints on physical activity, and poor reproductive outcomes. Models of human development may need to be refined to accommodate a greater range of the biological and cultural sources of adversity as well as their independent and interactive influences., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

The research tryp to Lisbon of L.R. was supported by a grant from the Programa de Movilidad de Personal Joven Investigador from the Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid., This study attempts to fill a persistent gap in the literature by documenting the timing of epiphyseal union at the vertebral end of the ribs in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons. The skeletal remains of 53 females and 45 males, between the ages of 11 and 30, were taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. Individuals in the sample have been previously described as being representative of a middle‐to‐low socioeconomic segment of the early 20th century Lisbon population. Three anatomical locations were examined for epiphyseal union: the head, the articular tubercle and the nonarticular tubercle. The first epiphysis to show partial union is that of the nonarticular tubercle (females, 11–19 years; males, 11–19 years), followed by the epiphysis of the articular tubercle (females, 11–20 years; males, 16–20 years), and finally by the head epiphysis (females, 15–24 years; males, 16–22 years), which can still show incomplete epiphyseal closure at 25 and 24 years for females and males, respectively. A trend for earlier female maturation was observed, but the statistical tests only confirmed this result for some ribs and age groups. No directional asymmetry was found, but a significant fluctuating asymmetry was observed in all three epiphyses. A preliminary analysis showed that the asymmetric group of individuals in the study sample includes all the rural‐to‐urban migrants, relative to the symmetric group. Am J Phys Anthropol, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia. Grant Number: SFRH/BPD/22142/2005, Programa de Movilidad de Personal Joven Investigador from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Background: Guatemala is the Latin American country with the highest prevalence of childhood stunting. Short height can bias the diagnosis of wasting when using the weight-for-height indicator. The aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic concordance of the anthropometric indicators of wasting and the relationship between wasting and stunting in children from highly vulnerable communities in Guatemala. Methods: The sample consisted of 13,031 anthropometric records of children under five years of age (49.5% girls, average age of 27.9 months), including weight, height, and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), collected in March–August 2019. The proportions of stunting, underweight, and wasting, assessed by three different indicators, as well as their concurrence through the Composite Index of Anthropometric Failure were calculated. Results: Stunting affected 73% of the sample, and 74.2% showed anthropometric failure. Wasting varied by indicator (weight-for-height: 2.8%; MUAC: 4.4%; MUAC-for-age: 10.6%). Concordance between MUAC and weight-for-height was very low (Kappa: 0.310; sensitivity: 40.9%). MUAC identified more wasted children in the stunted group (53.6% vs. 26.5%), while the opposite occurred in the non-stunted group (34.8% vs. 46.7%). Conclusion: The presence of stunting affected the diagnosis of wasting, and both indicators should be included as diagnostic criteria for screening campaigns and in the treatment of moderate to acute wasting in vulnerable populations affected by multiple forms of undernutrition., European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations Commission, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

This research is part of the project financed by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness CSO2012-32709., The presence of autopsy marks in human skeletal remains indicates a medicolegal procedure related to ascertaining the cause and manner of death. We present here four cases where signs of autopsy were observed in the remains recovered from mass graves and cemeteries of prisoners from the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), victims of extrajudicial executions, and of death in prison, respectively. With respect to the former, historical evidence indicate that during the first weeks after the coup, official removal of cadavers and autopsy procedures were carried out to the first victims of extrajudicial killings, whose corpses were found abandoned in the road. Once the civil war was established and systematic extrajudicial killings were systematic, official military orders were issued to stop standard forensic proceedings. Therefore, autopsy marks observed in the remains exhumed from mass graves located in cemeteries may be indicative of an earlier chronology of the killings, and this information proved to be relevant for the identification process in one of the cases presented. In a cemetery of political prisoners, autopsy signs were also observed in two skeletal remains and in the official records of two prisoners, a corroboration of information also relevant for the identification process. These findings indicate that autopsy marks can be found in the remains of victims of human rights violations exhumed from cemeteries. Skeletal and archival information could be useful for the identification process in other cases of large-scale violence, where the first victims of extrajudicial executions were buried unidentified in cemeteries after autopsy procedures., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives Sagittal and axial rib orientation relative to the spine are two factors that modify rib cage morphology during ontogeny. Some studies suggest that these factors do not operate in the same way at the upper (ribs 1–5) and lower thorax (ribs 6–10) during postnatal growth, but it is unknown if the ontogenetic thoracic changes are produced by morphological changes of the ribs (intrinsic rib factors) or by external factors related to costal joints (extrinsic rib factors). Material and methods To clarify these questions, we applied 3D geometric morphometrics of landmarks and sliding semilandmarks (N = 20/rib) to 280 individual ribs (1–10) of Homo sapiens comprising the entire human ontogeny and growth simulations were carried out. Results PCA shows that intrinsic rib factors (rib torsion and axial rib curvature) are ontogenetic factors of variability that contribute to configuring the adult thorax shape. Moreover, growth simulations and regression slopes suggest that the upper thorax unit is comprised by ribs 1–7 and the lower unit at least by ribs 8–10. Discussion These results suggest anatomical constraints for ontogenetic rib variation, since ribs 1–7 (true ribs) are directly linked to the sternum. Moreover, these results are supported by functional anatomy because pulmonary kinematics would influence the upper unit and diaphragmatic kinematics would influence the lower one. Our findings are relevant not only to understanding how changes at individual ribs contribute to the adult thorax morphology, but also to the development and evolution of the modern human rib cage., Ministerio de Ciencia y Competitividad, Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Financial support for the digitization of the anthropometric data and the radiograph films was provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation through their program “Quantifying Healthy Birth, Growth and Development knowledge integration”, contract number OPP1125811, Barry Bogin, Principle Investigator, Plasticity in the growth of body segments between populations has been researched in relation to migration, temporal change and high‐altitude studies. We study the within population variation in body segments, thus controlling for some of the environmental and genetic differences that could be at play in between populations studies. We test a version of the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, where the growth of head‐trunk and hand are prioritized due to their functional significance over height and leg growth. A total of 3913 Guatemalan, rural, semi‐urban and urban, Maya and Ladino children 6 to 15 years old were studied. Height, sitting height, leg length, and metacarpal length were studied in relation to three proxies for living conditions: height‐ and leg length‐for‐age, and maternal education. Estimation statistics and null hypothesis significance testing were used to analyze the data. Metatarsal length and sitting height values were higher than height and leg length respectively. Relative metacarpal length was conserved across height‐for‐age groups. Females were less affected than males for metacarpal length and sitting height, but more affected for leg length. Conclusion: Our results agree with the thrifty phenotype hypothesis, where metacarpal and sitting height growth would be prioritized over height and leg length due to greater functional significance., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Se trata del estudio genético de relaciones familiares más antiguo hasta la fecha en la Península Ibérica, mediante la utilización de marcadores genéticos y software forenses de uso convencional. Igualmente, se aporta información relevante sobre el aspecto físico de los neolíticos del Pirineo, cosa no realizada hasta el momento (2020). Es el resultado de una intensa colaboración nacional e internacional con el Grupo de Genética Forense y Genética de Poblaciones de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Complutense, dirigido por los Drs. Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo y la Dra. Ana M. López-Parra., One of the most important Neolithic necropolises in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula is La Feixa del Moro (3975-3790 cal. BC), located at 1335 mamsl in the Pyrenees (Juberri, Sant Julia de Lòria, Andorra). Within the scarcity of multiple simultaneous Neolithic burials, the main importance of La Feixa del Moro lies in the fact that it is one of the very few cases to suggest a biological family burial, comprising two adults and a newborn baby. Accordingly, the purpose of the present work was the multidisciplinary interpretation of the necropolis in the Neolithic context of the Pyrenees, on a potential route between the Iberian Peninsula and Europe. Therefore, kinship and biogeographic analyses were performed, as well as external visible characteristics phenotyping. Our results suggest the possibility of a traditional nuclear family, pointing to a very probable relation between the newborn and both adults. First, two mitochondrial haplotypes and two lineages were determined: H1, for the presumable mother and newborn, and U5, for the presumed father. Second, regarding their physical appearance, they all had brown eyes, the adult female and the neonate had dark brown hair, while the adult male's hair was dark red-brown. Finally, it was possible to confirm the sex of two of the individuals, as the newborn baby gender was also confirmed by the High Troughoutput Sequencing analysis. The multidisciplinary analysis of the La Feixa del Moro burial place envisions a very probable familial burial. Not only does the genetic evidence point to biological kinship, but also the archaeological record indicates a habitational area surrounding the burial site. The similar artefacts and the care shown during the funerary ritual suggest a probable biological Neolithic family., Una de las necrópolis neolíticas más importantes del noreste de la Península Ibérica es La Feixa del Moro (3975-3790 cal. a. C.), situada a 1335 m sobre el nivel del mar en los Pirineos (Juberri, Sant Julià de Lòria, Andorra). Dentro de la escasez de múltiples enterramientos neolíticos simultáneos, la principal importancia de La Feixa del Moro reside en que es uno de los pocos casos que sugiere un entierro familiar biológico, compuesto por dos adultos y un recién nacido. En este sentido, el objetivo del presente trabajo fue la interpretación multidisciplinar de la necrópolis en el contexto neolítico del Pirineo, en una potencial ruta entre la Península Ibérica y Europa. Para ello, se realizaron análisis de parentesco y biogeográficos, así como fenotipado de características externas visibles. Nuestros resultados sugieren la posibilidad de una familia nuclear tradicional, apuntando a una relación muy probable entre el recién nacido y ambos adultos. En primer lugar se determinaron dos haplotipos mitocondriales y dos linajes: H1, para la presunta madre y el recién nacido, y U5, para el presunto padre. En segundo lugar, en cuanto a su apariencia física, todos tenían ojos marrones, la hembra adulta y el neonato tenían cabello castaño oscuro, mientras que el cabello del macho adulto era marrón rojizo oscuro. Finalmente, fue posible confirmar el sexo de dos de los individuos, ya que el sexo del recién nacido también fue confirmado mediante el análisis de secuenciación de alto rendimiento. El análisis multidisciplinar del lugar de enterramiento de La Feixa del Moro vislumbra un enterramiento familiar muy probable. No sólo la evidencia genética apunta a un parentesco biológico, sino que también el registro arqueológico indica un área habitacional que rodea el sitio de enterramiento. Los artefactos similares y el cuidado mostrado durante el ritual funerario sugieren una probable familia biológica neolítica., Santander-Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Depto. de Medicina Legal, Psiquiatría y Patología, Fac. de Medicina, TRUE, pub

We thank the entire excavation team working at El Sidrón, as well as the other members of the Paleoanthropology Group of MNCN-CSIC, including S. Garcia-Vargas, J. M. Baquero, and D. Oropesa. We are grateful to the NESPOS Society and the professionals behind it, as well as to the following Institutions and scholars for providing CT data: A. Balzeau, Muséum National D’Histoire Naturelle Paris; C. Stringer and R. Krusynski, Natural History Museum, London; F. Spoor, University College London; and P. Semal, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels. We thank H. Coqueugniot [CNRS–PACEA (De la Préhistoire à l’Actuel: Culture, Environnement et Anthropologie)] for advice on cranial reconstruction. We thank Clinica Ruber for technical support with CT scans and radiographs. We also thank the following curators and researchers for granting access to skeletal collections: J. Alves and S. García (Museu Nacional de História Natural e da Ciência, Lisbon); A. L. Santos, S. Wasterlain, T. Ferreira, and the staff of DRYAS (Universidade de Coimbra); L. Jellema (HamannTodd Osteological Collection); J. Pastor (Universidad de Valladolid); M. Benito (Universidad Complutense de Madrid); and E. Gilissen (Royal Museum of Central Africa; Synthesys grant BE-TAF-4580 to L.R.). We also thank B. Bogin for the discussion of several aspects of the research with L.R. (José Castillejo visiting research grant CAS16/00108 to Loughborough University). A. Martínez helped with the figures. A.R. was supported by a grant from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain (CGL2016-75-109-P Convenio Principado de Asturias–Universidad de Oviedo CN-09-084). We additionally thank three anonymous referees for valuable suggestions. A.R., L.R., C.D., and H.L. wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript and the overall interpretation. L.R., A.R., and H.C. compiled osteological databases. H.L. and C.D. provided human dental databases. A.R., L.R., A.E., R.H., A.G.-T., and M.B. per, Ontogenetic studies help us understand the processes of evolutionary change. Previous studies on Neandertals have focused mainly on dental development and inferred an accelerated pace of general growth. We report on a juvenile partial skeleton (El Sidrón J1) preserving cranio-dental and postcranial remains. We used dental histology to estimate the age at death to be 7.7 years. Maturation of most elements fell within the expected range of modern humans at this age. The exceptions were the atlas and mid-thoracic vertebrae, which remained at the 5- to 6-year stage of development. Furthermore, endocranial features suggest that brain growth was not yet completed. The vertebral maturation pattern and extended brain growth most likely reflect Neandertal physiology and ontogenetic energy constraints rather than any fundamental difference in the overall pace of growth in this extinct human., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

This research was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (Investigation Projects BOS2002-01677 and CGL2006-04749/BOS) awarded to RC and from the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR-PRIN 2007) awarded to AN., Background: Gene flow among human populations is generally interpreted in terms of complex patterns, with the observed gene frequencies being the consequence of the entire genetic and demographic histories of the population. Aims: This study performs a high-resolution analysis of the Y-chromosome haplogroup E in Western Andalusians (Huelva province). The genetic information presented here provides new insights into migration processes that took place throughout the Mediterranean space and tries to evaluate its impact on the current genetic composition of the most southwestern population of Spain. Subjects and methods: 167 unrelated males were previously typed for the presence/absence of the Y-chromosome Alu polymorphism (YAP). The group of YAP (+) Andalusians was genotyped for 16 Y-SNPs and also characterized for 16 Y-STR loci. Results: The distribution of E-M81 haplogroup, a Berber marker, was found at a frequency of 3% in our sample. The distribution of M81 frequencies in Iberia seems to be not concordant with the regions where Islamic rule was most intense and long-lasting. The study also showed that most of M78 derived allele (6.6%) led to the V13* subhaplogroup. We also found the most basal and rare paragroup M78* and others with V12 and V65 mutations. The lineage defined by M34 mutation, which is quite frequent in Jews, was detected as well. Conclusions: The haplogroup E among Western Andalusians revealed a complex admixture of genetic markers from the Mediterranean space, with interesting signatures of populations from the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula and a surprisingly low influence by Berber populations compared to other areas of the Iberian Peninsula., Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

We thank the many funding agencies that supported this work, in particular the National Geographic Society, the National Research Foundation, the Lyda Hill Foundation, and the Lee R. Berger Foundation for Exploration for particularly significant funding of the discovery, recovery, and analysis of this material. DGM and MB were funded through CGL2012-37279, MINECO, Spain, and a Leakey Research Grant to DGM. A visit to the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA; Tervuren, Belgium) by DGM was funded by the European Commission's Research Infrastructure Action via the Synthesys Project (BE-TAF-5639). SAW was funded through the New York University Research Challenge Fund., Hominin evolution featured shifts from a trunk shape suitable for climbing and housing a large gut to a trunk adapted to bipedalism and higher quality diets. Our knowledge regarding the tempo, mode, and context in which these derived traits evolved has been limited, based largely on a small-bodied Australopithecus partial skeleton (A.L. 288-1; “Lucy”) and a juvenile Homo erectus skeleton (KNM-WT 15000; “Turkana Boy”). Two recent discoveries, of a large-bodied Australopithecus afarensis (KSD-VP-1/1) and two Australopithecus sediba partial skeletons (MH1 and MH2), have added to our understanding of thorax evolution; however, little is known about thorax morphology in early Homo. Here we describe hominin vertebrae, ribs, and sternal remains from the Dinaledi chamber of the Rising Star cave system attributed to Homo naledi. Although the remains are highly fragmented, the best-preserved specimens—two lower thoracic vertebrae and a lower rib—were found in association and belong to a small-bodied individual. A second lower rib may belong to this individual as well. All four of these individual elements are amongst the smallest known in the hominin fossil record. H. naledi is characterized by robust, relatively uncurved lower ribs and a relatively large spinal canal. We expect that the recovery of additional material from Rising Star Cave will clarify the nature of these traits and shed light on H. naledi functional morphology and phylogeny., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Objectives The human respiratory apparatus is characterized by sexual dimorphism, the cranial airways of males being larger (both absolutely and relatively) than those of females. These differences have been linked to sex-specific differences in body composition, bioenergetics, and respiratory function. However, whether morpho-functional variation in the thorax is also related to these features is less clear. We apply 3D geometric morphometrics to study these issues and their implications for respiratory function. Material and methods Four hundred two landmarks and semilandmarks were measured in CT-reconstructions of rib cages from adult healthy subjects (Nmale = 18; Nfemale = 24) in maximal inspiration (MI) and maximal expiration (ME). After Procrustes registration, size and shape data were analyzed by mean comparisons and regression analysis. Respiratory function was quantified through functional size, which is defined as the difference of rib cage size between MI and ME. Results Males showed significantly larger thorax size (p < .01) and functional size (p < .05) than females. In addition, the 3D-shape differed significantly between sexes (p < .01). Male rib cages were wider (particularly caudally) and shorter, with more horizontally oriented ribs when compared to females. While thorax widening and rib orientation were unrelated to allometry, thorax shortening showed a slight allometric signal. Conclusions Our findings are in line with previous research on sexual dimorphism of the respiratory system. However, we add that thorax shortening observed previously in males is the only feature caused by allometry. The more horizontally oriented ribs and the wider thorax of males may indicate a greater diaphragmatic contribution to rib cage kinematics than in females, and differences in functional size fit with the need for greater oxygen intake in males., Objetivos El aparato respiratorio humano se caracteriza por un dimorfismo sexual, siendo las vías respiratorias craneales de los machos más grandes (tanto absoluta como relativamente) que las de las hembras. Estas diferencias se han relacionado con diferencias específicas de cada sexo en la composición corporal, la bioenergética y la función respiratoria. Sin embargo, no está tan claro si la variación morfofuncional en el tórax también está relacionada con estas características. Aplicamos morfometría geométrica 3D para estudiar estas cuestiones y sus implicaciones para la función respiratoria. Material y métodos Se midieron cuatrocientos dos puntos de referencia y semipuntos de referencia en reconstrucciones por TC de cajas torácicas de sujetos adultos sanos (Nmale = 18; Nfemale = 24) en inspiración máxima (IM) y espiración máxima (EM). Después del registro de Procrustes, los datos de tamaño y forma se analizaron mediante comparaciones de medias y análisis de regresión. La función respiratoria se cuantificó a través del tamaño funcional, que se define como la diferencia del tamaño de la caja torácica entre IM y EM. Resultados Los machos mostraron un tamaño de tórax significativamente mayor (p <0.01) y un tamaño funcional (p <0.05) que las hembras. Además, la forma 3D difirió significativamente entre sexos (p < 0.01). Las cajas torácicas de los machos eran más anchas (particularmente caudalmente) y más cortas, con costillas más orientadas horizontalmente en comparación con las de las hembras. Mientras que el ensanchamiento del tórax y la orientación de las costillas no estaban relacionados con la alometría, el acortamiento del tórax mostró una ligera señal alométrica. Conclusiones Nuestros hallazgos están en línea con investigaciones previas sobre el dimorfismo sexual del sistema respiratorio. Sin embargo, agregamos que el acortamiento del tórax observado previamente en los machos es la única característica causada por la alometría. Las costillas más orientadas horiz, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), Leakey Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Purpose To test the association between arcuate foramen (AF) in the first cervical vertebra with acute headache attributed to whiplash. Methods Retrospective study of 128 patients that suffered a whiplash. The presence or absence of AF was recorded after a radiographic study, as well as the presence or absence of acute headache after the whiplash. Results The frequency of AF was 17.2%. Patients with bilateral AF presented a significant (p = 0.000, Fisher’s test) increase in the frequency of acute headache (90.9%) in comparison with the non-AF group (5.7%). The ratio between the presence and absence of acute headache was 166.6 times higher (IC 95% 18.2–1526.22) in subjects with bilateral AF in comparison with non-AF subjects. Conclusions The presence of bilateral AF is associated to an increased frequency of acute headache after suffering a whiplash, information of interest for the attention to these patients., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Textiles damage analysis is a very valuable tool in forensic investigations. However, to date, very little research has been carried out to understand the impact of bullet causing damages to clothing. According to the review of the most recent scientific papers, the frictional heating and crushing action of a bullet passing through synthetic fibres cause a unique transformation in their ends called mushroom-shaped morphology. In this study, the textile remains of six individuals executed during the first decade of the Chilean military dictatorship period (1973–1990) were analysed. The purpose was to examine their clothing in order to describe the fibre defects in the bullet holes. The fibres were directly observed using two different models of stereomicroscopy (MZ16A and EZ4D, Leica Microsystem Ltd., Wetzlar, Germany) and through a combination of transmitted, oblique and co-axial illumination (with Leica DFC500 Digital Camera), at × 230 and at a resolution of up to 840 Lp/mm. The mushroom-shaped morphology, along with rupturing of yarns, fibrillation or splitting of fibres, was observed in the bullet holes. Although the mushroom-shaped is a useful pattern for bullet hole identification in synthetic fibres, further research needs to be performed for developing a sounder interpretational framework of this type of forensic evidence., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (CGL2012-37279, MINECO), the Leakey Foundation, and PI10/02089 ( Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria) Ministry of Health, Spain., Chest size is important for reconstructing Neandertal paleobiology. The large size of the Neandertal skeletal thorax has been interpreted about cold adaptation, increased body mass, specific body shape, and increased activity levels (Franciscus and Churchill, 2002, Churchill, 2006, Gómez-Olivencia et al., 2009). Large Neandertal chests should also be expected because chest and lung sizes are correlated developmentally (Thurlbeck, 1982, Bastir et al., 2013a), because lung size scales isometrically with body mass across mammals (Stahl, 1967), and because body mass was larger in Neandertals than in modern humans (Ruff et al., 1997, Froehle and Churchill, 2009). The notion of large chests has recently been reinforced by Gómez-Olivencia et al. (2009), who measured the ribs of the Kebara 2 Neandertal male using arc lengths. Their study suggested that the upper ribs of Kebara 2 are within the range of modern humans, and the middle (ribs 4, 5, 7) and lower (ribs 8, 10) thoracic ribs exceed the range of modern human variation. Consequently, this predicts that the total thorax size (the sum of the sizes of each of the ribs) should be larger in Kebara than in modern humans. However, Gómez-Olivencia et al. (2009) also identified a problem in the original reconstruction of the 6th and 7th ribs of Kebara due to a misidentification of fragments fitted together by Arensburg (1991), who stated that the ribs of “Kebara man are quite similar in metric and morphological respects to those of ribs in present human populations” (Arensburg, 1991: 142). Nevertheless, misidentifications such as those identified by Gómez Olivencia et al. (2009) could affect size assessments. Bastir et al. (2012) measured the reconstruction of the Kebara rib cage (Sawyer and Maley, 2005) using 3D geometric morphometrics, and no evidence for such enlarged chest size was found, supporting Arensburg's (1991) opinion. Thus, the size of one of the best-preserved Neandertal male thoracic skeletons is currently uncle, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Financial support has been provided by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation: Research Project CGL2006-04749/BOS (to RC) and by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca: MIUR-PRIN 2007 (to AN)., This study aims at a high-resolution analysis of Y-chromosome J and E haplogroups among Andalusians to recon- struct Neolithic, protohistorical and historical migrations in the Mediterranean region. Genotyping of two samples from Granada (n=250 males) and Huelva (n=167 males) (Spain) with Y-chromosome binary and microsatellite markers was performed, and the results compared with other Mediterranean populations. The two samples showed genetic differences that can be associated with different evolutionary processes. Migrations toward Andalusia probably originated in the Arabian Peninsula, Fertile Crescent, Balkan region and North Africa, and they would have predominantly occurred in protohistoric and historic times. Maritime travel would have notably contributed to recent gene flow into Iberia. This survey highlight the complexity of the Mediterranean migration processes and demonstrate the impact of the different population sources on the genetic composition of the Spanish population. The main in-migrations to Iberia most likely did not occur through intermediate stages or, if such stages did occur, they would have been very few., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Financial support has been provided by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation: Research Projects: CGL2010-15191/BOS, and CGL2006-04749/BOS (to RC) and by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Universita` e della Ricerca: MIURPRIN 2007 (to AN)., Seventeen Y-chromosomal short tandem repeats (STRs) were analyzed in 347 healthy, unrelated, autochthonous males from the Andalusian provinces of Huelva (N=167) and Granada (N=180). AmpFlSTR Y-filer PCR Amplification kit (Applied Biosystems) was used to type the Y-STR markers. A total of 156 and 166 different haplotypes for the 17 Y-STR set were detected in Huelva, and Granada, respectively. The same haplotype diversity was found for both samples (0.998±0.001), and the overall discrimination capacity was 0.904. The most common minimal haplotype (DYS19, DYS389 I, DYS389 II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393) in both subpopulations was 14-13-16-24-11-13-13, which is also the most frequent haplotype among Atlantic European populations. Comparison analysis using pairwise R(ST) values and Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) revealed a significant genetic distance between our Andalusian samples and other ones from the northern Iberian fringe (including Basque and Pyrenean populations). However, results from the multi-dimensional scaling analysis (MDS) yielded a well-defined group of Iberian populations separated from the other Mediterranean clusters observed., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Se trata de un estudio paleopatológico con herramientas de metagenómica, que complementó al menos parcialmente el registro histórico clínico., Syphilis is one of the most exciting diseases explored in paleopathology and, therefore, tracing back its origin and development has provided a prolific debate. The combination of paleopathological data with historical sources, iconography, and archaeological contexts were the primary sources used to reconstruct its historical path. However, there are some limitations to paleopathological diagnosis due to the nature of bone reaction to stimuli. In addition, historical sources are subjected to a bias of social and cultural nature and the knowledge of those who wrote them. Hence, ancient DNA analysis offers the possibility of acquiring proof of cause by identifying pathogens in an organism. We undertook a metagenomic study of a skeleton exhumed from the Royal Hospital of All Saints (Portugal), renowned for treating syphilis from the 16th century onwards. The skeleton had previously been diagnosed with syphilis according to paleopathological analysis. However, the metagenomics analysis showed no presence of the pathogen associated with syphilis (i.e., Treponema pallidum) but revealed pathogenic microorganisms related to respiratory diseases (pneumonia), nonspecific bone infections (osteomyelitis), and oral bacterial pathologies as well as Hansen’s disease (also known as leprosy). The results are exciting and demand a reappraisal of the observed bone changes, recontextualizing their characterization as syphilis related. They prove that past reconstruction of health and disease diagnoses based on assessing human osteological remains of known context (such as a syphilitic hospital) may bias interpretations and, therefore, caution is recommended, not forgetting that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence (in this case of syphilis) in life., La sífilis es una de las enfermedades más apasionantes exploradas en paleopatología y, por tanto, rastrear su origen y desarrollo ha generado un debate prolífico. La combinación de datos paleopatológicos con fuentes históricas, iconografía y contextos arqueológicos fueron las principales fuentes utilizadas para reconstruir su recorrido histórico. Sin embargo, existen algunas limitaciones para el diagnóstico paleopatológico debido a la naturaleza de la reacción ósea a los estímulos. Además, las fuentes históricas están sometidas a un sesgo de carácter social y cultural y del conocimiento de quienes las escribieron. Por tanto, el análisis de ADN antiguo ofrece la posibilidad de adquirir pruebas de la causa mediante la identificación de patógenos en un organismo. Realizamos un estudio metagenómico de un esqueleto exhumado en el Hospital Real de Todos los Santos (Portugal), conocido por tratar la sífilis desde el siglo XVI. Al esqueleto se le había diagnosticado previamente sífilis según análisis paleopatológicos. Sin embargo, el análisis metagenómico no mostró la presencia del patógeno asociado con la sífilis (es decir, Treponema pallidum), pero reveló microorganismos patógenos relacionados con enfermedades respiratorias (neumonía), infecciones óseas inespecíficas (osteomielitis) y patologías bacterianas orales, así como la enfermedad de Hansen (también conocida como lepra). Los resultados son apasionantes y exigen una reevaluación de los cambios óseos observados, recontextualizando su caracterización como relacionada con la sífilis. Demuestran que la reconstrucción pasada de diagnósticos de salud y enfermedades basada en la evaluación de restos osteológicos humanos de contexto conocido (como un hospital sifilítico) puede sesgar las interpretaciones y, por tanto, se recomienda precaución, sin olvidar que la ausencia de evidencia no es evidencia de ausencia ( en este caso de sífilis) en la vida., Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Depto. de Medicina Legal, Psiquiatría y Patología, Fac. de Medicina, TRUE, pub

Background: In 2015, the Ministry of Health in Mali included the treatment of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) into the package of activities of the integrated Community Case Management (iCCM). This paper aims to analyze the impact of including community health workers (CHWs) as treatment providers outside the Health Facilities (HFs) on the coverage of SAM treatment when scaling up the intervention in the three largest districts of the Kayes Region in Mali. Methods: A baseline coverage assessment was conducted in August 2017 in the three districts before the CHWs started treating SAM. The end-line assessment was conducted one year later, in August 2018. Coverage was assessed by the standardized methodology called Semi-Quantitative Evaluation of Access and Coverage (SQUEAC). The primary outcome was treatment coverage and other variables evaluated were the geographical distribution of the HFs, CHW’s sites and overlapping between both health providers, the estimation of children with geographical access to health care and the estimation of children screened for acute malnutrition in their communities. Results: Treatment coverage increased in Kayes (28.7–57.1%) and Bafoulabé (20.4–61.1%) but did not in Kita (28.4–28.5%). The decentralization of treatment has not had the same impact on coverage in all districts, with significant differences. The geospatial analyses showed that Kita had a high proportion of overlap between HFs and/or CHWs 48.7% (39.2–58.2), a high proportion of children without geographical access to health care 70.4% (70.1–70.6), and a high proportion of children not screened for SAM in their communities 52.2% (51.9–52.5). Conclusions: Working with CHWs in SAM increases treatment coverage, but other critical aspects need to be considered by policymakers if this intervention model is intended to be scaled up at the country level. To improve families’ access to nutritional health care, before establishing decentralized treatment in a whole region it must be, The Innocent Foundation, The European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operation (ECHO), Post Code Lottery Foundation, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

This work was funded by the IdEx University of Bordeaux Investments for the Future program (ANR-10-IDEX-03-02); projects CGL2012-37279 and CGL2015-63648P (Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness), CGL2015-65387-C3-2-P (MINECO/FEDER), and PGC2018-093925-B-C33 (FEDER/Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación-Agencia Estatal de Investigación); and Research Group IT1044-16 from the Eusko Jaurlaritza-Gobierno Vasco and Group PPG17/05 from the Universidad del País Vasco-Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea. The “Juan de la Cierva Formación” program (FJCI-2017-32157), from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities, funds D.G.-M. A.G.-O. is funded by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RYC-2017-22558)., Ontogenetic studies provide clues for understanding important paleobiological aspects of extinct species. When compared to that of modern humans, the adult Neanderthal thorax was shorter, deeper, and wider. This is related to the wide Neanderthal body and is consistent with their hypothetical large requirements for energy and oxygen. Whether these differences were already established at birth or appeared later during development is unknown. To delve into this question, we use virtual reconstruction tools and geometric morphometrics to recover the 3D morphology of the ribcages of four Neanderthal individuals from birth to around 3 years old: Mezmaiskaya 1, Le Moustier 2, Dederiyeh 1, and Roc de Marsal. Our results indicate that the comparatively deep and short ribcage of the Neanderthals was already present at birth, as were other skeletal species-specific traits. This morphology possibly represents the plesiomorphic condition shared with Homo erectus, and it is likely linked to large energetic requirements., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Homo naledi es una especie previamente desconocida de homínido extinto descubierta dentro de la Cámara Dinaledi del sistema de cuevas Rising Star, en el Cradle of Humankind, Sudáfrica. Esta especie se caracteriza por tener una masa corporal y estatura similar a las poblaciones humanas de cuerpo pequeño, pero un volumen endocraneal pequeño similar al de los australopitecos. La morfología craneal de H. naledi es única, pero se asemeja más a las especies tempranas de Homo, incluyendo Homo erectus, Homo habilis o Homo rudolfensis. Aunque primitiva, la dentición es generalmente pequeña y simple en su morfología oclusal. H. naledi presenta adaptaciones manipulativas de la mano y la muñeca similares a las humanas. También exhibe un pie y miembro inferior similares a los humanos. Estos aspectos humanos se contrastan en el postcráneo con un tronco, hombro, pelvis y fémur proximal más primitivos o similares a los australopitecos. Representando al menos 15 individuos con la mayoría de los elementos esqueléticos repetidos múltiples veces, esta es la mayor colección de una sola especie de homínidos descubierta en África., National Geographic Society, The National Research Foundation of South Africa (WARF), The Palaeontological Scientific Trust, Lyda Hill Foundation, Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF), Texas A and M University, Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

L. Copes, L. Lucas, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology provided access to scans for MCZ 38018 (DOI: 10.17602/M2/M4399), MCZ 38019 (DOI: 10.17602/M2/M4398), MCZ 38020 (DOI: 10.17602/M2/M4397), and MCZ 31619 (DOI: 10.17602/M2/M4892). These scans were downloaded from MorphoSource. The Duke Lemur Center (DLC), Division of Fossil Primates granted access to the three Aegyptopithecus specimens via MorphoSource: DPC 2803 and DPC 3161, the collection of which was funded by NSF BCS 1231288 (to E.R. Seiffert, G. F. Gunnell, D. M. Boyer, and J. G. Fleagle) and NSF DBI 1458192 (to G. F. Gunnell, R. F. Kay and D. M. Boyer), and DPC 8794, the collection of which was funded by NSF DBI 2023087. This work is part of R+D+I projects PID2020- 116908GB- I00, PID2020- 117289GB- I00, PID2020- 117118GB- I00, funded by the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN) from Spain (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/), and it has been further sup-ported by the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA Programme (Research Centres of Catalonia) and research support grants (SGR) of the Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (Generalitat de Catalunya) to consolidated research groups (2021 SGR 01184, 2021 SGR 01188, and 2021 SGR 00620). S.A.C. is supported by BID PICT 2019- 03675 and J.F. is supported by a Ramón y Cajal grant [RYC2021- 032857- I] financed by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the European Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR. This is NYCEP Morphometrics Contribution #120.Author affiliations: aDepartment of Anthropology, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY 11210; bDivision of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024; cNew York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, NY 10024; dUnidad Ejecutora Lillo, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas—Fundación Miguel Lillo, San Miguel de Tucumán 4000, Argentina; eFacultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universi, Pierolapithecus catalaunicus (~12 million years ago, northeastern Spain) is key to understanding the mosaic nature of hominid (great ape and human) evolution. Notably, its skeleton indicates that an orthograde (upright) body plan preceded suspensory adaptations in hominid evolution. However, there is ongoing debate about this species, partly because the sole known cranium, preserving a nearly complete face, suffers from taphonomic damage. We 1) carried out a micro computerized tomography (CT) based virtual reconstruction of the Pierolapithecus cranium, 2) assessed its morphological affinities using a series of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) morphometric analyses, and 3) modeled the evolution of key aspects of ape face form. The reconstruction clarifies many aspects of the facial morphology of Pierolapithecus. Our results indicate that it is most similar to great apes (fossil and extant) in overall face shape and size and is morphologically distinct from other Middle Miocene apes. Crown great apes can be distinguished from other taxa in several facial metrics (e.g., low midfacial prognathism, relatively tall faces) and only some of these features are found in Pierolapithecus, which is most consistent with a stem (basal) hominid position. The inferred morphology at all ancestral nodes within the hominoid (ape and human) tree is closer to great apes than to hylobatids (gibbons and siamangs), which are convergent with other smaller anthropoids. Our analyses support a hominid ancestor that was distinct from all extant and fossil hominids in overall facial shape and shared many features with Pierolapithecus. This reconstructed ancestral morphotype represents a testable hypothesis that can be reevaluated as new fossils are discovered., Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub