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The outcome of encounters between predators and prey affects predation rates and ultimately population dynamics. Determining how environmental features influence predation rates helps guide conservation and management efforts. We studied where gray wolves (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) and coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) killed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) in northern Wisconsin, USA. We monitored 499 white-tailed deer for cause-specific mortality between 2011 and 2014 using VHF radio collars. We investigated the locations of 125 deer mortalities and determined that 63 were canid (wolf or coyote) kill sites. We analyzed spatial patterns of kill sites using resource selection functions in a model selection framework, incorporating environmental variables including vegetative cover, human development, snow depth, and water. We found no evidence that vegetative cover or human development affected predation risk; however, we did find that increasing snow depth resulted in increased relative predation risk. This finding is consistent with existing research on the influence of snow cover on white-tailed deer survival. Our results suggest that understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of white-tailed deer predation requires a better understanding of snow depth variation in space and time. As climate change scenarios predict changes in snowfall throughout the northern hemisphere, understanding the effect on predator--prey spatial dynamics will be important for management and conservation efforts. Key words: predation, white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, gray wolf, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, predator--prey dynamics, seasonal variation, spatial dynamics. Le dénouement de rencontres de prédateurs et de proies a une incidence sur les taux de prédation et, en définitive, sur la dynamique des populations. La détermination de l'influence d'éléments du milieu sur les taux de prédation aide à guider les efforts de conservation et de gestion. Nous avons étudié des lieux de prédation de cerfs de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) par des loups gris (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) ou des coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) dans le nord du Wisconsin (Etats-Unis). Nous avons suivi 499 cerfs de Virginie à l'aide de colliers émetteurs VHF de 2011 à 2014, afin de déterminer les causes de mortalité. Nous avons examiné les lieux de 125 morts de cerf et déterminé que 63 étaient des sites de prédation par des canidés (loup ou coyote). Nous avons analysé la répartition spatiale des lieux de prédation à l'aide de fonctions de sélection de ressources dans un cadre de sélection de modèles, en intégrant différentes variables environnementales, dont le couvert végétal, l'aménagement anthropique, l'épaisseur de la neige et la présence d'eau. Nous n'avons relevé aucun indice d'une incidence du couvert végétal ou de l'aménagement anthropique sur le risque de prédation; nous avons toutefois constaté qu'une plus grande épaisseur de neige se traduisait par un risque de prédation relatif accru. Cette constatation concorde avec des travaux existants sur l'influence du manteau neigeux sur la survie du cerf de Virginie. Nos résultats donnent à penser qu'une meilleure compréhension des variations de l'épaisseur de la neige dans l'espace et le temps est nécessaire à la compréhension des motifs spatiaux et temporels de prédation des cerfs de Virginie. Comme les scénarios de changement climatique prédisent des changements des chutes de neige dans tout l'hémisphère nord, la compréhension de l'effet de la dynamique spatiale des interactions prédateursproies sera importante pour les efforts de gestion et de conservation. [Traduit par la Rédaction] Mots-clés : prédation, cerf de Virginie, Odocoileus virginianus, loup gris, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, dynamique prédateurs-proies, variation saisonnière, dynamique spatiale., Introduction Animals make behavioral trade-offs to increase survival (Boyce and McDonald 1999; Kunkel and Pletscher 2000), and ultimately fitness (DeCesare et al. 2014). Prey animals balance foraging and vigilance behaviors [...]

Mortality rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) fawns have been quantified throughout North America. Few studies, however, have assessed cause-specific mortality of fawns after the first 3 months of life or during a severe weather event. During 2010-2014, we captured and radio-tracked 93 fawns in southern and central Illinois and recorded 18 mortality events. In order of importance, survival rates were affected by days since capture, year of drought, age at capture, week after capture (1 or 0 indicator), and region. Estimated overwinter (fall through spring) survival rate ([+ or -]SE) of fawns in both regions during 2010-2014 was 0.83 [+ or -] 0.04. However, estimated overwinter survival rates were depressed during 2012-2013, following the severe drought of 2012 (0.63 [+ or -] 0.11 or 0.66 [+ or -] 0.11 depending on the model). Main causes of mortality were capture-related and predation, though some dead deer also showed signs of hemorrhagic disease. We suspect that the extreme drought of 2012 created favorable conditions for fall--spring mortality of fawns, due to elevated disease transmission and lower forage quality and quantity for deer. In addition, drought may have contributed to predation by reducing abundance of alternative prey. Our results suggest that severe weather conditions during summer can substantially impact overwinter fawn survival. Key words: bobcat, drought, Lynx rufus, mortality, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survival, predation, white-tailed deer. Les taux de mortalite de faons de cerf de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) ont ete quantifies partout en Amerique du Nord. Peu d'etudes ont toutefois evalue la mortalite de faons associee a des causes precises apres les trois premiers mois de leur vie ou durant des evenements meteorologiques intenses. De 2010 a 2014, nous avons capture et suivi a l'aide de radioemetteurs 93 faons dans le sud et le centre de l'Illinois et enregistre 18 evenements de mortalite. En ordre d'importance, les facteurs suivants influencaient les taux de survie : le nombre de jours depuis la capture, une annee de secheresse, l'age au moment de la capture, la semaine apres la capture (indicateur 1 ou 0) et la region. Le taux de survie hivernale (de l'automne au printemps) estime ([+ or -]ET) des faons dans les deux regions de 2010 a 2014 etait de 0,83 [+ or -] 0,04. Les taux de survie hivernale estimes etaient toutefois plus faibles durant la saison 2012-2013, suivant l'intense secheresse de 2012 (0,63 [+ or -] 0,11 ou 0,66 [+ or -] 0,11, selon le modele). Les principales causes de mortalite etaient des causes reliees a la capture, ainsi que la predation, bien que certains cerfs morts aient aussi presente des signes de maladie hemorragique. Nous soupconnons la secheresse extreme de 2012 d'avoir cree des conditions favorables a une mortalite des faons de l'automne au printemps en raison de la transmission accrue de maladies, de la moins bonne qualite de la nourriture et d'une moins grande quantite de cerfs. La secheresse pourrait en outre avoir contribue a accroitre la predation en reduisant l'abondance d'autres proies. Nos resultats portent a croire que des conditions de mauvais temps durant l'ete peuvent avoir une incidence importante sur la survie hivernale des faons. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : lynx roux, secheresse, Lynx rufus, mortalite, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survie, predation, cerf de Virginie., Introduction Accurate estimates of vital rates are important for understanding wildlife population dynamics and for species management. For white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)), fawn production and survival rates are [...]

Much of our present knowledge of mixed migration strategies of northern populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) comes from short-term studies, which limits the observed variation of winter severity and thus our understanding of its potential influence on the migration behavior of study cohorts. From 1991 to 2006, we assessed the incidence of autumn migratory versus nonmigratory behavior of 335 adult (> 1.0 year old) females, what proportion were conditional versus obligate migrators, the importance of winter severity as a factor affecting the migratory response, and the effect of winter severity and study length on the classification of deer as conditional or obligate migrators and composition of study populations. Annual winter conditions ranged from historically mild to severe. The annual estimated proportion of deer migrating from spring-summer-autumn range to winter range was positively related to winter severity, and the cumulative probability of deer migrating tracked accumulating snow depths as winters progressed. However, the relationship was highly variable, largely attributable to the annual variation in migratory behavior of individuals radiomonitored for 2-7 years. Importantly, because of the variability of autumn-winter weather conditions, we noted that the proportion of deer we classified as obligate migrators was inversely related to the number of years individuals were monitored. Further, the composition (nonmigratory, conditional, and obligate migrators) of the study cohort was strongly influenced by the severity of winter conditions in the year of capture, as well as in subsequent winters of monitoring. Key words: autumn migration, interval-censored, long-term study, migration, Odocoileus virginianus, white-tailed deer, winter severity

Comparisons of corn crop-loss reporting methods produced no statistically significant differences between on-the-ground estimates and mean estimates reported by farmers. Data were obtained from 222 randomly sampled cornfields in Pennsylvania. Categories include average wildlife-related losses and losses produced by white-tailed deer.

An overview is presented on the effects of hunting, poaching and coyote predation on Nova Scotia's white-tailed deer populations. Implications for wildlife management are also discussed, such as adjusting antlerless hunting permit allotments to balance hunting and nonhunting loss estimates.

Research indicates that philopatry and high survival rates of white-tailed deer in suburban areas contribute to their overabundance in metropolitan regions. Data were obtained from 208 marked deer from Chicago, Illinois forest preserves between 1994-1998. Philopatry consisted of dispersals of less than 9 km, with deer-auto collisions producing the highest mortality rate.

A habitat suitability index for white-tailed deer was tested using foraging intensity and pellet-group count levels in the presence and absence of hunting and timber harvesting. The model performed well for foraging intensity except under timber harvesting conditions, and was negatively correlated with pellet count except under hunting conditions.

A comparison of mule deer and white-tailed deer populations near Denver, Colorado, show mule deer outnumber white-tailed deer by a ratio of four to one, and mule deer fawns survive white-tailed deer fawns by a ratio of two to one. These baseline figures account for the three-to-one difference in perceived population growth rates between the mule deer and the white-tailed deer, respectively.

Stochastic recruitment was studied in white-tailed deer along an environmental gradient.

White-tailed deer use of clearings in relation to forage availability was examined.

High-density deer populations in forest communities can have a major effect on forest structures and are of increasing concern to management agencies protecting native plant communities. The effect of deer foraging varies widely, depending upon deer numbers and availability of alternative forage plants. A new study investigates whether summer deer grazing intensity can be predicted from estimates of winter deer density and from the composition of the forest's surrounding landscape. Results show that deer density is not the only consideration in management, with low densities of forage plant species in the surrounding area making parks and preserves especially vulnerable.

Helicopter surveys have been used for some time to gain information about population density which is vital to the effective management of white-tailed deer populations. However, aerial surveys are not practical for small landholdings or leasings, and under these circumstances it may be preferable to census deer using infrared monitors that trigger automatic cameras. Research on this subject has established that a single helicopter survey would probably not provide an accurate estimate of population, sex or age.

Researchers have assessed techniques for capturing white-tailed deer in an urban environment using the Pneu-Dart delivery system and a mixture of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. Attention was given to factors including search times, distance and direction travelled by darted deer and recovery rates. It was found that darting methodology did not have an impact on recovery rates when using transmitter-equipped darts. The use of these darts allowed an improvement in rates of retrieval of missed shots and darts that did not lodge properly in unrecovered deer.

There is now growing public awareness in the US of the potential for using immunocontraception to control excessively large urban populations of white-tailed deer. This issue attracts considerable controversy, and can often split residents of urban areas where white-tailed deer are causing damage. Researchers are in a position to provide unbiased information about immunocontraception, but residents of affected areas are often unwilling to look beyond their own narrow views. If an immunocontraception project is implemented, it can prove very expensive because of the conflict it entails.

Problems with controlling white-tailed deer numbers at the Landings, a residential community situated on Skidway Island, GA, began in the late 1970s following a ban on hunting. Deer damage began to cause concern among local residents in the late 1980s, and the elected Board of Directors for the Landings set up a deer committee in Jul 1990. There was some controversy about whether deer control measures should be implemented, but deer control started in Aug 1994. Since then, 1,127 deer have been removed through hunting.

The Missouri Department of Conservation established a task force in 1989 to assess the extent of problems with white-tailed deer in urbanized areas and to draw up guidelines for managing urban deer. Considerable attention has been given to establishing population goals, taking into account the fact that urban Missourians often like to see deer. It has been possible to establish a protocol for setting up hunts if hunting is deemed to be necessary to control deer numbers on public areas.

Researchers have investigated the potential of contraceptives for controlling the growth of white-tailed deer populations in suburban settings. The implementation of a contraception program to limit deer numbers in Irondequoit, a suburb of Rochester, NY, involved using an adaptive management approach. This has four main steps, including gaining the approval of stakeholders for an agreed population size and making initial predictions about the impact of various management techniques. Adaptive management places strong emphasis on application of available data to make the best possible predictions.

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection encountered considerable hostility when it decided to implement a controlled hunt to reduce white-tailed deer numbers on Bluff Point Coastal Reserve, a 326-ha peninsula on the coast of Groton, CT. A hunt held in 1990 had to be stopped because of claims that the herd had been eliminated, and great care was therefore taken to inform the public about the need to reduce the herd before a further controlled hunt took place in Jan 1996. The 1996 hunt also attracted protestors, but it was possible to kill 233 deer.

There has been a significant rise in numbers of white-tailed deer in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in Ohio since the 1970s. It became clear in the late 1980s that there was a danger that large deer populations would soon have a negative impact on natural resources in the park. This prompted a variety of research projects, including monitoring of deer populations and of vegetation. The Cuyahoga Valley Communities Council also responded by creating a Deer Management Task Force in Sep 1993.

It was necessary for wildlife managers at Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in Pennsylvania to address many issues when considering how to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer. The National Park Service and the Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Pennsylvania State University created a cooperative research scheme in 1985, and research looked at issues including deer movements and habitat use. Work on a draft Environmental Impact Statement began in 1993, and public opinion was sought. A deer reduction programme removed 503 deer during the first year and 355 during the second year.

Excessive numbers of white-tailed deer have had a negative impact on the ecology of Brown County State Park in Indiana. It was decided in Mar 1992 by the Department of Natural Resources to establish a committee to address this problem. The activities of the committee were hampered by moves by a state alliance of environmental organizations to link deer densities within the park to forest wildlife management practices outside the park. Problems were also caused by lack of accurate information about deer population levels. However, it was eventually possible to remove 392 deer through a one-day hunt.

Virginia's Conservation and Research Center, which covers around 1,400 ha of pastures and deciduous forests and is situated on the west slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, has had a problem with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer since the 1970s. It initially turned to hunting in the 1980s to deal with this problem, but this attracted opposition from animal-rights groups. Early failures in deer management prompted extensive research, and considerable attention has been given to the impact of high deer densities on ecosystem processes.

Integrated pest management (IPM) can be a useful alternative technique for white-tailed deer management. This technique, which requires clear, precise targets to be identified, offers an interdisciplinary approach to the decision-making process. The IPM planning process provides selected management alternatives, and indicates cases where deer management problems can be addressed by linking alternatives or components of alternatives and by working with the private sector and federal, state and local agencies.

There has been a significant rise in the number and types of potential stakeholders in the decision-making process for establishing deer management goals as the problem of suburban white-tailed deer management has become increasingly serious in the US. There is now strong emphasis on innovative approaches to public involvement in suburban communities in deer management issues. It has been shown that the Citizen Task Force method can make a positive contribution to a local deer management program.

There has been growing interest in quality deer management in Texas since the 1970s. This state has the largest population of white-tailed deer in North America, and these deer are causing considerable ecological damage in some areas. Recent research has assessed various educational approaches to deer management directed at different stakeholder groups in the state. Some educational programs focus on producers, while others are aimed at consumers or young people. It has been established that there is a clear need for continuing education for wildlife professionals.

An analysis of approaches to the management of white-tailed deer populations in Pennsylvania can be used to highlight deer management difficulties being faced in many US states. Significant progress has been made in the technical aspects of deer management, but there has been a very slow response to the social and decision-making aspects of deer management. Wildlife management agencies such as the Pennsylvania Game Commission must now focus on making ordinary people aware of the consequences of excessively large deer populations.

Research into the impact of translocation on female white-tailed deer has tested the view that female deer related as matrilineal groups will stay closer to the release site and show a higher survival rate than unrelated females. Attention was also given to whether the presence of translocated deer has an impact on the traditional ranges of resident deer. It was established that translocating deer in social groups does not lead to a fall in the number that subsequently die.

Researchers have focused on the summer home ranges of eight social groups of female white-tailed deer in Huntington Wildlife Forest, Newcomb, NY, to test the prediction that female deer will not move into neighbouring low-density areas where other social groups are present. The findings support the view that areas of reduced density will remain because deer on the surrounding landscape will not respond to densities in neighbouring areas. It was established that social groups are mainly independent of each other in terms of geography, behaviour and genetics.

It is vital to improve understanding of the ecological links between deer and other ecosystem components if specific issues relating to deer overabundance are to be resolved. Research on this subject has looked specifically at the information requirements of resource managers responsible for white-tailed deer in the northeastern United States. It is vital that researchers from different disciplines join together to form partnerships with managers, recognizing that scientists can play a valuable role in designing and justifying experimental management schemes.

Research into the links between trends in deer populations and the attitudes of hunters towards deer management has used population data accumulated over 13 years for white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. It was established that many hunters are opposed to reducing deer populations. Many have no clear understanding of the connection between deer and their habitat or of the impact of excessive deer numbers on forested ecosystems. This indicates that it is vital for special interest groups to support efforts by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to manage deer populations.

Wildlife managers in North America have for most of the 20th century sought to protect the white-tailed deer. It is now becoming clear that their actions have had some negative repercussions. Deer are now becoming a nuisance in suburban areas, for example, and are causing extensive damage to crops and tree seedlings. Recent research on this subject has looked in particular at whether deer are acting as a 'keystone' herbivore to make significant changes to ecological communities. It may be worthwhile devoting some part of the revenue from hunting licenses to implementing monitoring programs.

Transmitter darts of 2 cc capacity, used to capture white-tailed deer, need only 4.0 person-hours per deer and achieve 100% recovery as compared to 3 cc standard darts which need 20.5 person-hours and allow only 52% recovery. The transmitter darts are used for wildlife management and facilitate public safety as they permit dart retrieval. The use of transmitter darts is very effective in environments with dense vegetation.

A study of white-tailed deer in South Texas revealed that tepary bean was nutritious but could not last due to the unsuitability of the season. The study indicated that the siratro and tepary bean are not consistent food sources for sandy loam soil. Common cowpeas still do better. Lablab purpureus survives despite grazing by white-tailed deer even better than cowpeas and is similar in taste and chemical composition. Thus lablab is a suitable alternative to cowpeas for the diet of deer living on sandy loam soil.

The densities of Pennsylvania songbird species in forest enclosures in which the effects of browsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been simulated were measured to determine the impact of deer density on songbird densities. The results show that deer density had no impact on ground- or upper-canopy-nesting songbirds or their habitats. However, species richness and densities of intermediate-canopy-nesting songbirds declined. The implications for white-tailed deer management strategies are discussed.

The summer diurnal bed sites of Coues white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus couesi) were characterized from 1989-90 to obtain data for preservation purposes. Human activities may destroy bed sites, which enable deer to maintain body core temperature and water balance during summer. Results showed that location of bed sites aree directly related to tree density, tree species richness and tree canopy cover. Regulation of fuelwood cuts, grazing schedules and recreational use is recommended to protect white-tailed deer bed sites during summer or during high-temperature-low water periods.

Habisat quality reducedeby fireesuppresscoaemay have iflueacedethe receatedeclie ofeKey deer (Odocoileus virgiianus clavium). A major foragigehabisat for Key deer,ethe rocklaad pie community well as several plaatseeawemic toethis habisat, depend oneperiodic firesefor coatiuedeexisteace. Re buraigeis opposed by residensseofenearby urban developmeat. To quaatify effectseof fire,ewe measure aawenutritcve coateat ofebrowseefor the year followcg fire,emonitored growsheof the vegetatcoaeafte aawedocumeated successcoaeiaerelatcoaeto timeesiace the last fire. Browsigebyedeer was most itense ia the growigeseasoa. Deerechose speciesehigh ia crudeeproteia (CP), phosphorus (P), aaweia vitroed (IVOMD). The 2 most heavily browsed pielaad species,eblackbead (Pishecellobium keyense) aaweIndian mulberry (Morida royoc), wereehigh ia CP year-round. The amouat ofePeof diet speciesewas lower thaa the assumederequiremeat for deer but actually may be adequate. Increases ia nutritcve value ia impor dietary specieselastede6-11emonthseafter buraig. Sprout density of specieseia the diet was higher ( ia buraedethaaeiaeunburaedeploss, providigemoreebrowseewishiae2 yearseafter buraig. Fruitigeof di speciesereturaedetoeunburaedelevelsewishiae1 year after buraig at most sites. Thus,eburaig ofepie providedetemporary benefits ia nutritcve quality aawemoreeprologed benefits ia browseequaatity. Fir retardatcoaeof successcoa, however, may be ofegreaaer benefitetoedeer thaaetemporary forage enhaacem Community structureewas similar amog pie staads on Big Pie Key. Vegetatcoaeoaesmaller islaads was mixsureeof pielaad aawehammock species,ewish few herbaceous species,eiacludigethose importaateia t Keyedeer diet. A 10-etoe20-year iterval between firesemaintais pie savanna on Big Pie Key. Aa ia ofe10-50 yearseoaesmaller,emoreeisolated islaads arrests successcoaeat aa iatermediate stage. Oaly a fire-free iterval ([greaaer thaa]100 years) allows full developmeateof aehammock community. Enwemic plaatseat pielaad sites wereegenerally unaffectedeby fireeia pie savanna,ewhereas they wereerareeo from sites ia which successcoaehad advancedetoemixed pie-hammock compositcoa. Preventigeextictcoa eawemic plaatseis a major benefiteof prescribedeburaig. Despite the value of prescribedeburaig for pielaad eawemics aaw specieseimportaateia the Key deer diet, managemeat of Lower Keys vegetatcoa should eacompasseoaheresuccesscoaal stages. Maintaii g a diversity ofestaads will provide cover for refuge for numerous plaat specieseiatoleraat ofeburaig. We recommead aa experimeatal regimeeoferepl plosseof pie savanna be buraedeat 5-, 15-, 25-, aaw 75-year itervalsetoedocumeat responseseof plaa as well as successcoaal shifts., Periodic fires may be important in maintaining the foraging habitat for Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) in Florida. A decline in deer population in the Lower Florida Keys may be the result of suppressing fires due to urban development. Vegetation was monitored for nutritive content over time, following a fire. The nutritive value of important pineland species was found to increase after burning and browse quantity improved. Burning also prevented the extinction of endemic plants. Future management objectives are recommended.

Winter habitat use patterns of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northern Idaho were studied to investigate the hypothesis that snow cover can be used to predict winter habitat selection. A model is developed to predict winter habitat selection using snow depth and an assessment of a number of other factors that might influence habitat selection. Results suggest habitat selection can be forecast from seasonal changes in deer basal metabolism combined with forage availabilty and energy expenditure related to snow cover. Deer management implications are considered.

We examined the metabolic rate of captive female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus oirginianus) to determine if the seasonal rhythm now presumed for this species is a physiological adaptation or a of earlier experimental designs. Indirect respiration calorimetry was used with 4 yearling does in a trials designed to determine fasting metabolic rate during each season. Only metabolic rates from be animals were used in analyses and care was taken to ensure that seasonal comparisons were made among values within the thermal neutral zone. Contrary to earlier findings, no differences (P [greater tha among summer, winter, and spring fasting metabolic rate (87,85, and 90 kcal/kg [BM.sup.0.75]/day, re The observed increase in summer metabolic rate for white-tailed deer reported by previous researcher be attributed to the measurement of metabolic rates outside the thermal neutral zone, and a failure for differential activity of deer between summer and winter.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were studied on and adjacent to a 600-ha refuge in east-central Illinois during 1980-85. Marked deer (n = 286), 96 of which were radio marked, were used to determine the demographic characteristics, seasonal movements, social interactions, habitat selection, and value of refugia to deer in landscapes heavily affected by human activities. Deer numbers were increasing on the refuge and on more lightly hunted larger forests during the study due to high natality, high prehunt fawn survival (>90%), relatively high survival of yearling and older females protected by the refuge, and hunter preference for antlered males. However, deer were frequently hunted to temporary extinction in smaller wood lots. The survival of yearling and older males was significantly lower than that of females because males moved more and were selected by hunters. During April-June each year, about half the surviving fawn crop (both sexes) and 20% of the yearling females dispersed from the study area and moved an averaged of 45-50% km before settling on new home ranges. Both sexes tended to settle in vacant ranges where deer had been killed during hunting or where habitats were hostile in winter. An additional 20% of yearling and older females migrated seasonally; they moved an average of 13 km away in spring and returned to the study area in late fall or early winter. Nearly all deer were faithful to seasonal ranges selected before the age of 15 months. Survival of dispersing deer after marking was lower than that of deer with refuge protection. Refuge-dwelling males frequently incuded nonrefuge areas in their annual home ranges, a practice that resulted in survival rates similar to dispersing deer. Fawns that did not disperse used some or all of the ranges of their mothers, and nondispersing female fawns had at least an occasional association with their mothers throughout life. Home ranges of adjacent females overlapped in space but not in time. Related females shared more of their home ranges than did nonrelatives in all seasons. Habitat use was similar by both sexes except in summer. During June-September, mature males (>3 yrs) vacated areas used by females to rear fawns and moved to habitats dominated by row crops. In other seasons both sexes favored early successional ( Extensive female dispersal in white-taile deer, such as occurred in east-central Illinois, appears to be confined to the highly fragmented ranges of the agricultural Midwest. Dispersal of fawns appears adaptive for both sexes because high fawn survival and limited habitat each spring produce intense competition for inclusion within existing social groups. The repeated extinctions and colonizations of deer in these sparsely forested landscapes depend upon scattered refugia for annual restocking with annual success dependent on distance from winter refugia. Refugia are necessary for deer to live long enough to develop a tradition of range use and to pass these traditions on to succeeding generations through matrilineal associations.

Harvest data constitute an important source of information on many white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in North America. Many techniques and variations thereof have been developed for the analysis of such data, and preferred methods differ widely among management agencies and researchers. In this monograph, we catalog, evaluate, and compare a number of these techniques including Index-Removal, Catch Per Unit Effort, Population Reconstruction, Change-in-ratio, Life Table, Harvest Age Structure, Harvest Sex Ratio, Land and Wood's 'Pennsylvania' method, and Fraser's method. We critically examined characteristics such as input requirements, output produced, assumptions, accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and robustness. Comparative evaluations were based primarily on ability to identify and monitor trends in the Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge deer herd during the period 1973-88. Over that timespan, the herd was apparently harvest-regulated and experienced several alternating periods of decline and stability. Index-Removal, Change-in-ratio, and Life Table Analysis proved least satisfactory in providing information about the reference herd, primarily because critical assumptions were not met. Harvest Age Structure and Harvest Sex Ratio analyses were more useful, but neither provided information sufficient for precise herd management. The importance of interpreting harvest age structure separately for males and females was emphasized. Reconstruction offered a logical and direct tool for population analysis although it was sensitive to varying harvest intensity and di not address current status unless combined with other techniques. Certain variations of the Catch Per Unit Effort approach were able to closely monitor trends in abundance with a minimum of data. The Lang-Wood and Fraser methods appeared to be less sensitive, precise, and robust than Reconstruction or Catch Per Unit Effort, but could serve as supplemental methods of analysis. We conclude by describing how trends in abundance, harvest, and effort might be indicative of a population's probable position on the growth curve. The relevance of such knowledge to 'practical' deer management also is discussed.

We used cohort analysis to evaluate temporal variation in the population density of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at the Canonto Study Area in southeastern Ontario. During continuous study between 1953 and 1986, the population underwent 2 major fluctuations in density, ranging between 1.3 and 7.0 deer/[km.sup.2]. Variation in instantaneous exploitation rates was related linearly to hunting effort, as predicted by the simple random search model used in cohort analysis. Temporal variation in the annual rate of increase of the deer population was largely accounted for by variations in hunting effort and the per capita rate of recruitment. Recruitment rates and growth rates of juveniles showed evidence of delayed, rather than immediate, response to changes in population density. Dynamic interactions between deer and their food supply probably caused similar time lags in both growth and recruitment rates. Such time lags are likely to predispose the population to oscillations, and this tendency was possibly exacerbated by temporal variation in exploitation effort.

Resort development on Kiawah Island, a subtropical barrier island off the coast of South Carolina, has had a negative impact on the local population of white-tailed deer. The natural habitat of the deer is being destroyed, and this is forcing groups of deer into urban areas. However, there is little local interest in protecting the deer population, and it proved very difficult to gain approval for a deer ecology study. This study is now underway, and its supporters hope to find a deer management solution which will save the deer from starvation and preserve their dignity.

The New Jersey Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife has developed a community-based approach to dealing with the problem of white-tailed deer in suburban areas. Under its Community-Based Deer Management Program, it is working with a number of different local, state and national agencies to develop and use methods other than hunting to control deer in suburban settings. Suburban New Jersey communities are showing growing interest in addressing deer management problems, and 16 communities and two county park systems have been supplied with information and help.

There has been a significant increase in white-tailed deer populations in northern Mexico since the 1970s, when landowners realized that there were strong economic arguments in favour of taking action against poaching. Indeed, deer populations have become too large in certain areas, and this has led to the trapping of deer in these areas for translocation to ranches where more deer are required. The Mexican government is now adopting a new approach to deer management, as there is little demand for translocated deer. This includes creating areas for the sustainable use of wildlife.

A number of approaches have been adopted to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer in the parks controlled by the Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District (CMPD). It was realized at an early stage that deer management could attract controversy, as deer have high visibility in a number of these parks. Furthermore, CMPD is funded mainly by a property tax approved by Franklin County voters, so public involvement was vital. Deer management techniques have included darting does with the prostaglandin drug Bovilene and relocating deer from several park areas.